实用英语语法
第一部分 词法
Chapter 1. 主谓一致
一、概念：
主谓一致是指：1)语法形式上要一致,即单复数形式与谓语要一致。2)意义上要一致,即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。3)就近原则,即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语,一般来说,不可数名词用动词单数,可数名词复数用动词复数。例如：There is much water in the thermos.
但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时,谓语动词用复数形式。例如：Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year.
二、相关知识点精讲
1、并列结构作主语时谓语用复数,例如：Reading and writing are very important.
注：当主语由and连结时,如果表示一个单一的概念,即指同一人或同一物时,谓语动词用单数,and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。例如：The iron and steel industry is very important to our life. 钢铁工业对我们的生活有重要意义。
2、主谓一致中的靠近原则
1)当there be句型的主语是一系列事物时,谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。例如：
There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk. 桌上有一支笔、一把小刀和几本书。
There are twenty boy-students and twenty-three girl-students in the class.班上有二十个男孩,二十三个女孩。
2)当either… or… 与neither… nor,连接两个主语时,谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。如果句子是由here, there引导,而主语又不止一个时,谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。例如：
Either you or she is to go. 不是你去,就是她去。
Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you. 给你笔、信封和纸。
3、谓语动词与前面的主语一致
当主语有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词组成的短语时,谓语动词与前面的主语部分一致。例如：The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory. 教师和一些学生在参观工厂。
He as well as I wants to go boating.他和我想去划船。
4、谓语需用单数的情况
1)代词each以及由every, some, no, any等构成的复合代词作主语时,或主语中含有each, every时, 谓语需用单数。例如：
Each of us has a tape-recorder. /There is something wrong with my watch.
2)当主语是一本书或一条格言时,谓语动词常用单数。例如：The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English.
3)表示金钱,时间,价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语时,通常把这些名词看作一个整体,谓语一般用单数。例如：
Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations. /Ten yuan is enough.
5、指代意义决定谓语的单复数
1)代词what, which, who, none, some, any, more, most, all等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定。
2)集体名词作主语时,谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定。如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee等词后,谓语动词用复数形式时强调这个集体中的各个成员,用单数时强调该集体的整体。例如：His family are music lovers.
但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry等在任何情况下都用复数形式。例如：Are there any police around? 附近有警察吗?
3)有些名词,如variety, number, population, proportion, majority等有时看作单数,有时看作复数。例如：
A number of +名词复数+复数动词：A number of books have lent out./ The majority of the students like English.
The number of +名词复数+单数动词：The number of books is 53 .
6、与后接名词或代词保持一致的情况
1)用half of, most of, none of, heaps of, lots of, plenty of 等引起主语时,谓语动词通常与of后面的名词/代词保持一致。例如：
Most of his money is spent on books. 他大部分的钱化在书上了。
Most of the students are taking an active part in sports. 大部分学生积极参与体育运动。
2)用a portion of, a series of, a pile of, a panel of 等引起主语时,谓语动词通常用单数。例如：
A series of accidents has been reported. 媒体报道了一连串的事故。
A pile of lots was set beside the hearth. 炉边有一堆木柴。
3)如many a 或 more than one 所修饰的短语作主语时,谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时,动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。例如：
Many a person has read the novel.许多人读过这本书。
More than 60 percent of the students are from the city.百分之六十多的学生来自这个城市。
Chapter 2. 动词的时态
一、概念：
英语的实义动词有以下五种形式：
(1) 动词原形：动词原形在句子中形式不变。主要用于主语为非第三人称单数的一般现在时,情态动词之后,或根据语法规定必须用动词原形的其他情况。
(2) 一般现在时第三人称单数形式(简称现单三)：主要用于主语为第三人称单数的一般现在时。
(3) 过去式：主要用于一般过去时。
(4) 现在分词：主要用于进行时态,或语法规定的其他情况。
(5) 过去分词：主要用于完成时态,或语法规定的其他情况。
动词一般现在时第三人称单数(现单三)的构成,见下表：
词尾变化(规律与名词变复数相同,读音也与名词复数相同) | 举例 |
一般加-s | Help---helps; read---reads |
在ch, sh, s, x 或元音字母o后面加-es | Do, fix, pass, push, teach ---does, fixes, passes, pushes, teaches |
以辅音字母加y结尾的词,变y为i再加-es | Try, study --- tries, stuides |
动词过去式和过去分词,大多数是动词原形+ ed 构成,这是规则动词。规则动词的拼写和读音规则如下表：
词尾变化 | 举例 | 词尾读音 |
动词后面加-ed | Help---helped,Work---worked,Watch---watched | 清辅音之后读[t] |
Want---wanted need---needed | [t] ,[d]之后读[t] | |
Turn---turned play--played | 元音和浊辅音([d]除外)之后读[d] | |
以不发音的“e”结尾的词,加-d | Love---loved,Serve---served | |
结尾是辅音字母+y时,y变i,再加-ed | Study---studied,Try---tried | |
结尾只有一个辅音字母的重读闭音节词,双写辅音字母再加-ed | Stop---stopped,Drop---dropped | 清辅音之后读[t] |
不规则动词的过去式和过去分词有其特殊变化形式,需要个别记忆,同时也要善于发现不规则中的规则,即某些字母组合的不规则动词有一定的规律。如：weep→wept, sleep→slept, sweep→swept。
现在分词一律由动词原形加-ing构成,规则如下表：
词尾变化 | 举例 |
一般加-ing | Look---looking, try---trying |
以不发音的e结尾的词,去掉e,再加-ing | Write---writing, dance---dancing |
以一个辅音字母(x除外)词尾的重读闭音节词,先双写词尾的辅音字母,再加-ing | Begin---beginning, swim---swimming, Run---running, sit---sitting |
以-ie结尾的词,变ie为y,再加-ing | Die---dying, lie---lying |
时态是英语谓语动词的一种形式,表示动作发生的时间和所处的状态。英语中的时态是通过动词形式本身的变化来实现的。为了学习的方便,人们把时间分为四个阶段：“现在、过去、将来、过去将来”。 英语动词所表示的动作在以上每个时间段中分别有四种状态：一般、进行、完成和完成进行,因此英语有16种时态。以do为例,列表如下：
时态 | 一般 | 进行 | 完成 | 完成进行 |
现在时 | Does; do | Am/is/are+doing | Has/have+done | Has/have+been doing |
过去时 | Did | Was/were+doing | Had done | Had been doing |
将来时 | Shall/will+do | Shall/will be +doing | Shall/will have + done | Shall/will+havebeendoing |
过去将来时 | Should/would/+do | Would/should+be doing | Should/would+have done | Would/should+ have been doing |
16个时态中,常用的有12个：一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时、过去将来时、现在进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时、现在完成时、过去完成时、将来完成时、现在完成进行时和过去完成进行时。其他时态很少单独使用。下面我们把各种时态的构成和用法做一个全面的介绍。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、一般现在时
(1)构成：通常以动词原形表示。主语为第三人称单数时,用现单三形式。
动词be和have(表示“拥有”)各人称的单数形式为：
第一人称单数 | 第二人称单数 | 第三人称单数 | |
Have | Have | Have | Has |
Be | Am | Are | is |
一般现在时的否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下：
动词be 与 have(表示“拥有”)：否定式直接把not放在动词之后,疑问式直接把动词放在主语之前,见下表：
否定式 | 疑问式 | ||
Be | Have | Be | Have |
I am not (I’m not)… | I have not (haven’t)… | Am i…? | Have i…? |
You are not (aren’t)… | You have not (haven’t)… | Are you…? | Have you…? |
He is not (isn’t)… | He has not (hasn’t)… | Is he …? | Has he …? |
动词be 的否定疑问式和简单回答：
否定疑问式 | 肯定回答 | 否定回答 |
Am I not (aren’t i)…? | Yes, you are. | No, you aren’t |
Are you not (aren’t you)…? | Yes, I am. | No, I’m not. |
Is he not (isn’t he)…? | Yes, he is. | No, he isn’t |
动词have(表示“拥有”) 的否定疑问式和简单回答：
否定疑问式 | 肯定回答 | 否定回答 |
Have I not (haven’t i)…? | Yes, you have. | No, you haven’t. |
Have you not (haven’t you)…? | Yes, I have. | No, I haven’t. |
Has he not (hasn’t he)…? | Yes, he has. | No, he hasn’t. |
注意：have 作为行为动词则只能按照行为动词的规则变化。
行为动词(以study为例)一般现在时的否定式、疑问式和简单回答(注意要加助动词do/does)
否定式 | 疑问式 |
I do not (don’t) study | Do I study |
You do not (don’t) study | Do you study |
He does not (doesn’t) study | Does he study |
否定疑问句式 | 简单回答(肯定/否定) |
Do I not (Don’t I) study…? | Yes, I do. No, I don’t. |
Do you not (Don’t you) study…? | Yes, you do. No, you don’t. |
Does he not (Doesn’t he) study…? | Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t. |
(2)用法：
1)表示经常性或习惯性的动作,常与often, usually, always, sometimes, every day, once a week, on Sundays, never 等表示经常性或习惯性的时间状语连用。例如：
I leave home for school at 7 every morning. 每天早上我七点离开家。
2)表示客观真理,客观存在,科学事实或用于强调动作的永久性、经常或反复性。例如：
The earth moves around the sun. 地球绕太阳转动。/Shanghai lies in the east of China. 上海位于中国东部。
When Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? 冬天来了,春天还会远吗?(英国浪漫主义诗人雪莱的名句。)
Beauty is truth, truth beauty. 美即真理,真理即美。(英国浪漫主义诗人济慈的名句。)
3)表示格言或警句。例如：Pride goes before a fall.骄者必败。
注：此用法如果出现在宾语从句中,即使主句是过去时,从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例如：Columbus proved that the earth is round. 哥伦布证实了地球是圆的。
4)表示现在时刻的现状、性质、状态、能力、性格、个性。例如：
Ann writes good English but does not speak well. 安英语写得不错,讲的可不行。
注：一般不用进行时的动词,它们用一般现在时表示现在进行时
①表示心理状态的词：accept, agree, allow, believe, care, dislike, fear, forget, hate, know, like, love, mean, mind, need, prefer, realize, remember, respect, understand, want, wish等。还有 admit, decide, permit, promise, receive, refuse等。
②感官动词和表示状态的动词一般不用进行时。系动词：如hear, look, notice, see, smell, sound, taste等词。表示状态的词：be, belong to, exist, have, remain, seem, stay等词。例如：
I see him now,he’s talking to a girl. 我看见他了,他正在和一个女孩说话
The warships belong to the navy and the tanks belong to the army. 军舰属于海军,坦克属于陆军。
The tea tastes fresh. 这茶味道很新鲜。
5)少数动词如go, come, leave, arrive, begin, start, be 等的一般现在时可以表示按规定、计划或安排预计要发生的事情。例如：
The plane takes off at six past five.飞机将于六点零五分起飞。
6)在时间和条件状语从句中可用一般现在时代替一般将来时。如When, while, before, after, till, once, as soon as, so long as, by the time, if, in case (that), unless, even if, whether, the moment, the minute, the day, the year, immediately等引导的时间状语从句,条件句。
He is going to visit her aunt the day he arrives in Beijing. 他一到北京,就去看他姨妈。
注：在make sure (certain) 后面的从句常用现在时表示将来时：
There aren’t many seats left for the concert; you’d better make sure that you get one today.
7)在某些以here, there 开头的句子中如：Here/There+动词+名词主语、Here/There+代词主语+动词,用一般现在时表示现在发生的动作。例如：There goes the bell.铃响了。
8)在进行体育比赛过程中解说员叙述迅速、短暂动作时,可用一般现在时表示正在进行的或刚刚发生的动作。例如：
Bater passes the ball to Yao Ming. Yao shoots?A fine shot! 巴特尔把球传给姚明,姚明投篮,好球!
9)在戏剧、电影等的剧本或图片的说明文字中,可用一般现在时表示动作。例如：
When the curtain rises, Juliet is sitting at her desk. The phone rings. She picks it up and listens quietly.
幕启,朱丽叶坐在桌旁。电话铃响,她拿起听筒,静静地听着。
比较：Now I put the sugar in the cup. &I am doing my homework now.
第一句用一般现在时,用于操作演示或指导说明的示范性动作,表示言行的瞬间动作。第二句中的now是进行时的标志,表示正在进行的动作的客观状况,所以后句用一般现在时。
2、一般过去时
(1)构成：一般过去时通常由动词过去式表示。一般过去时的否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式要用助动词do 的过去式did, 同时注意实义动词要用原形。
(2)用法：一般过去时动词主要表示过去某一时刻或某一段时间内发生的动作或情况,其中包括习惯性动作,通常与表示过去的时间状语连用。
1)在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或存在的状态。例如：时间状语有：yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982等。例如：Where did you go just now? 刚才你上哪儿去了?
2)表示在过去一段时间内,经常性或习惯性的动作。例如：
When I was a child, I often played football in the street. 我是个孩子的时候,常在马路上踢足球。
Whenever the Browns went during their visit, they were given a warm welcome.
Li Hong lived in Shanghai for ten years when she was young.
注：如果指的是在过去某事持续了一段时间,就要用一般过去时,而不是完成时态。在动词用一般过去时的句子里通常有时间状语,表明动作发生的时间。如该句中没有时间状语,那么上下文中一定有表明过去的时间状语或可以体现“动作或情况发生在过去”这一概念。
3)句型：It is time for sb. to do sth"到……时间了""该……了"。例如：It is time for you to go to bed.你该睡觉了。
It is time that sb. did sth. "时间已迟了""早该……了",例如It is time you went to bed.你早该睡觉了。
would(had)rather sb. did sth.表示'宁愿某人做某事'。例如：I'd rather you came tomorrow.还是明天来吧。
4) wish, wonder, think, hope等用过去时,作试探性的询问、请求、建议等,而一般过去时表示的动作或状态都已成为过去,现已不复存在。例如：I thought you might have some. 我以为你想要一些。
比较：Christine was an invalid all her life.(她已不在人间。)&Christine has been an invalid all her life.(她现在还活着)
Mrs. Darby lived in Kentucky for seven years. (含义：达比太太已不再住在肯塔基州。)
Mrs. Darby has lived in Kentucky for seven years. (含义：现在还住在肯塔基州,有可能指刚离去)
注：用过去时表示现在,表示委婉语气。
①动词want, hope, wonder, think, intend 等。例如：
Did you want anything else? 您还要些什么吗?/I wondered if you could help me. 能不能帮我一下。
②情态动词could, would。例如：Could you lend me your bike? 你的自行车,能借用一些吗?
3、一般将来时
(1)构成：一般将来时动词表示将来发生的动作或情况。主要有以下几种表现形式：shall/will + 动词原形、be going + 动词不定式、be to + 动词原形、be about + 动词不定式、be doing。
(2)用法：
1)shall/will + 动词原形
表示单纯的将来,不涉及主语的主观意愿。第一人称I, we用shall 或will,其余用will。will 在陈述句中用于各人称,在征求意见时常用于第二人称。其否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下：
否定式 | 疑问式 |
I shall/will not study…. | Shall I study…? |
You will not study…. | Will you study…? |
He will not study…. | Will he study…? |
否定疑问式 | 简单回答(肯定/否定) |
Shall I not (shan’t i) study…? | Yes, you will. No, you won’t. |
Will you not (Won’t you) study…? | Yes, I shall/will. No, I shan’t/won’t. |
Will he not (Won’t he) study….? | Yes, he will. No, he won’t. |
例如：Which paragraph shall I read first? 我先读哪一段呢?
Will you be at home at seven this evening? 今晚七点回家好吗?
注：will 用于第一人称时,可以表示将来的意愿、决心、允诺、命令等;shall用于第二、三人称时,可以表示说话人的将来的意愿。
Shall I open the window? 我打开窗户好吗?(征求允诺)
You shall have the book as soon as I get it. 我一拿到书就给你。(说话人的允诺)
The enemy shall not pass. 决不让敌人通过。(说话人的保证)
I will do my best to help you. 我愿意尽力帮助你。(意愿)
Nobody shall be late for the meeting. 任何人开会都不能迟到。(说话人的命令)
2)be going to +不定式,表示将来。
①主语的意图,即将做某事,这种打算往往是事先考虑好的。例如：What are you going to do tomorrow? 明天打算作什么呢?
②计划,安排要发生的事。例如：The play is going to be produced next month。这出戏下月开播。
③有迹象要发生的事。例如：Look at the dark clouds, there is going to be a storm.看那乌云,快要下雨了。
注：①will 和be going to 都可以表示某种意愿。例如：I won’t (am not going to) tell you my age.我不(愿意)告诉你我的年龄。
②be going to 和will在含义和用法上略有不同。Be going to往往表示事先经过考虑的打算;will多表示意愿,决心。有时不能互换。例如：
I have bought some bricks and I am going to build a kitchen with them.我买了些砖,我要用它们盖个厨房。(不能用will替换)
Can somebody help me? ?I will. 谁能帮我一些吗?―?我来。(不能用be going to替换)
③be going to可用于条件从句,表示单纯的将来;will则不能。例如：
If you are going to go to the cinema this evening, you’d better take your umbrella with you. 你若今晚去看电影,最好带着雨伞。
3)be +不定式,表示安排、命令或肯定将会发生的事情;在问句中表示征求意见。例如：
You are not to smoke in this room.你不许在这个房间里抽烟。(表命令)
The President is to arrive in Rome at three o’clock this afternoon. 总统今天下午三点到达罗马。(表安排)
4)be about to +不定式,表示正要、即将发生的事情。例如：
He is about to leave for Beijing. 他马上就要去北京了。
注：be about to do不能与tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。
练习：用be going to 或will.填空：
①Who will post this letter for me? ?I ____. (will)
②She has bought a length of cloth; she ____ (make) herself a dress. (is going to make)
4、现在完成时
(1)构成：现在完成时由助动词have + 过去分词构成,助动词have 有人称和数的变化。第三人称单数用has,其余用have.现在完成时的否定式直接在助动词后面加上not、疑问式是把助动词提到主语之前。以study 为例,其否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下：
否定式 | 疑问式 |
I have not (haven’t) studied…. | Have I studied…? |
You have not (haven’t) studied…. | Have you studied…? |
He has not (hasn’t) studied…. | Has he studied…? |
否定疑问式 | 简单回答(肯定/否定) |
Have I not (Haven’t i) studied…? | Yes, you have. No, you haven’t. |
Have you not (Haven’t you) studied…? | Yes, I have. No, I haven’t. |
Has he not (Hasn’t he) studied…? | Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t. |
(2)用法：
1)现在完成时通常表示在说话之前已经完成的动作或存在的状态,其结果的影响现在还存在。例如：I am sure we’ve met before.
2)表示持续到现在的动作或状态,是个现在时态,不与明确表示过去某个时间的状语连用,往往和包括现在在内的表示一段时间的状语连用,如already, ever, , yet,today, these days, recently, now, lately, for…, since…, in the last/past two weeks/years/days/months, just,so far (到目前为止),up till now (直到现在), up to the present (直到现在)等。如：
They have been away for two years./ We haven’t seen you recently.
Up to the present, great changes have taken place. 到现在已经发生了巨大变化。
注：比较一般过去时与现在完成时
1)一般过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情,强调动作,和现在不发生联系；现在完成时为过去发生的,强调过去的事情对现在的影响,强调的是影响。
2)一般过去时常与具体的时间状语连用,而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用或无时间状语,不能和具体的表示过去的时间状语连用。
①一般过去时的时间状语：yesterday, last week,…ago, in1980, in October, just now等,皆为具体的时间状语。
②现在完成时的时间状语：for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till/until, up to now, in past years, always等,皆不确定的时间状语。
③共同的时间状语：this morning, tonight, this April, now, already, recently, lately 等,但所表达的意义有所不同。用于现在完成时表示包括“现在 ”而用于一般过去时则与“现在”无关。例如：
I have written two letters this morning. 今天上午我写了两封信。(讲话时仍是上午)
I wrote two letters this morning. 今天上午我写了两封信。(讲话时是下午或晚上)
3)现在完成时可表示持续到现在的动作或状态,动词一般是延续性的,如live, teach, learn, work, study, know.一般过去时常用的非持续性动词有open, come, go, leave, arrive, start, die, finish, become, get married lose, fall等。表示短暂意义的动词在完成时中不能和包括现在在内的表示一段时间的状语连用,因为它们表示的动作不能持续。例如：
The old man has died for 4 months.(×)/ The old man has been dead for 4 months.(√)
注：have (has) been 和have (has) gone的区别：表示“曾到过某地”要用 “have (has) been”; 表示“已经去某地”要用 “have (has) gone”。例如：
They have been to Canada. 他们到过加拿大。(现在已经不在加拿大)
They have gone to Canada. 他们到加拿大去了。(可能在路上和已经到加拿大).
注：现在完成时不能和明确指出时间的状语,如yesterday, last year, in 1976, two days ago, just now, when I came in 等连用, 但可以和不明确指出时间的状语,如already, yet, sometimes, always, often, before, lately, recently, once, twice, ever, never等连用。
(3)用于现在完成时的句型举例：
1)It is the first / second time.... that…结构中的从句部分,用现在完成时。例如：
It is the first time that I have visited the city.这是我第一次访问这城市。
It was the third time that the boy had been late.
2)This is +形容词最高级+that…结构,that 从句要用现在完成时。例如：
This is the best film that I've (ever) seen. 这是我看过的最好的电影。
注：比较since和for
①Since 用来说明动作起始时间,for用来说明动作延续时间长度。例如：
I have lived here for more than twenty years./ I have lived here since I was born.
②并非有for 作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。例如：
I worked here for more than twenty years. (我现在已不在这里工作。)
I have worked here for many years.(现在我仍在这里工作。)
③用句型转换的方法,很容易排除非延续动词在有for/since结构的完成时中的误用。
1)(对)Tom has studied Russian for three years. = Tom began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.
2)(错)Harry has got married for six years. = Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.
显然,第二句不对,它应改为 Harry got married six years ago. 或 Harry has been married for six years.
注：since的四种用法：
①since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。例如：
I have been here since 1989. 1989起,我一直在这儿。
②since +一段时间+ ago。例如：I have been here since five months ago. 我在这儿,已经有五个月了。
③since +从句。例如：
Great changes have taken place since you left. 你走后,变化可大了。
Great changes have taken place since we were here. 我们走后,变化可大了。
④It is +一段时间+ since从句。例如：It is two years since I became a postgraduate student. 我考上研究生有两年了。
注：延续动词与瞬间动词
①用于完成时的区别：延续动词表示经验、经历； 瞬间动词表示行为的结果,不能与表示段的时间状语连用。例如：
He has completed the work.他已完成了那项工作。 (表结果)
I've known him since then.我从那时起就认识他了。(表经历)
②用于till / until从句的差异：延续动词用于肯定句,表示"做……直到……" 瞬间动词用于否定句,表示"到……,才……"。例如：He didn't come back until ten o'clock. 他到10 点才回来。
He slept until ten o'clock.他一直睡到10点。
5、过去完成时
(1)构成：一律用had + 过去分词构成。
(2)用法：
1)表示发生在过去某一时间或动作之前的事情,即“过去的过去”。用过去完成时,必须有一个过去的时间或动作来作参照,说明在此之前某事已发生。如果两个动作都是在过去发生的,先发生的用过去完成时,后发生的用一般过去时。例如：
She told me she had been there three times before. 她告诉我她以前到过那里三次。(“去过”发生在“告诉”之前)
It was five years since I had left middle school.(以过去为依据) 我离开中学到那时已经有五年了。
The film had been on for minutes when he arrived at the cinema. 电影已经开始几分钟了他才到电影院。
2)过去完成时动词可以表示过去某一时刻之前发生的动作或呈现的状态,这一动作一直持续到过去这一时刻或将继续下去。例如：When I came to Shanghai, he had been there for a long time. 我到上海时,他在那里很长时间了。
3)动词 expect, hope, mean, plan, suppose, think的过去完成时表示过去未曾实现的想法、希望、打算或意图。例如：
They had hoped to be able to come and see me. 他们本希望能来看我的。
4)过去完成时常用于no sooner…than… 和 hardly(scarcely) …when… 这两个句型,前面部分用过去完成时,后面部分用一般过去时。例如：
No sooner had he stolen the purse than he was caught red-handed.
= He had no sooner stolen the purse than he was caught red-handed. 他刚偷到钱包就被当场抓获。
6、将来完成时
(1)构成：shall/will + have + 过去分词
(2)用法：将来完成时动词主要表示在将来的某一时刻或将来的某一时刻之前完成的动作,这一动作也可能继续进行。
1)状态完成：表示某事继续到将来某一时为止一直有的状态。例如：
They will have been married for 20 years by then. 到那时他们结婚将有二十年了。
2)动作完成：表示将来某一时或另一个将来的动作之前,已经完成的动作或获得的经验。例如：
By seven o’clock this afternoon we shall have got to Shanghai if the train keeps good line.
By February next year this foreign expert will have been here on this job for five years.
7、现在进行时
(1)构成：由助动词be + 现在分词构成。其中be有人称和数的变化,有三种形式：第一人称单数用am, 第三人称单数用is, 其他用are。现在进行时的否定式是：直接在助动词be后面加上not;疑问式是：把助动词be提到主语之前。
(2)用法：
1)表示现在(指说话人说话时)正在发生或进行着的动作、事情。例如：We are waiting for you. 我们正在等你。
2)习惯进行：表示长期的或重复性的动作,有时表示现阶段正在进行而说话时动作未必正在进行。例如：
Mr. Green is writing another novel. 他在写另一部小说。(说话时并未在写,只处于写作的状态。)
3)表示渐变,如come,get, end, leave, return, grow, set out, meet, open, die, arrive, become, turn, run, go, begin等,它们的现在进行时可表示不远的将来要发生的事情。例如：
The leaves are turning red. 叶子在变红。/It's getting warmer and warmer. 天越来越热了。
4)与always, constantly, forever 等词连用,表示反复发生的动作或持续存在的状态,这种用法常表示说话人的某种感情,如赞扬、遗憾、讨厌或不满等。例如：
You are always changing your mind.你老是改变主意。/ You are always saying that sort of thing.你老爱说那样的话。
5)在一定的上下文中,后一句的动词谓语用现在进行时与前一句的一般现在时相配合,可用以体现原因、结果、目的等意味。即前一句用一般现在时动词谓语表述现在发生的事实,而后一句用现在进行时动词谓语来阐明这一事实的原因、结果、目的等。
例如：He frowns. He is worrying about his boy. 他皱着眉头,因为他在为他的孩子担心。
She lets her child have his own way. She is spoiling him. 她不管她的孩子。这是在把他惯坏了。(结果)
注：①不用进行时的动词：⑴表示事实状态的动词,如have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure, continue等。⑵表示心理状态的动词,如know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need, forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate等。⑶瞬间动词,如accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse等。⑷系动词,如seem, remain, lie, see, hear, smell, feel, taste, get, become, turn等。
②一般现在时说明事实,一般不带感情色彩;现在进行时与always, often, frequently等词连用时带有感情色彩。
例如：He always asks questions. 他总是提问题。(无感情色彩)
He is always asking questions. 他老爱提问题。(表示强烈的感情色彩)
8、现在完成进行时
(1)构成：第三人称单数由has been + 动词的现在分词;其他人称和数由have been + 动词的现在分词。
(2)用法：
1)表示动作从过去开始一直延续到现在,可能刚刚终止,也可能仍然在进行。例如：
I’ve been waiting for you since eight o’clock in the morning. 我从早上8点钟一直在等你。
It has been raining for three hours. 雨一直下了三个小时了。
2)有些动词不能用于现在进行时,如be, have, like, love, know, see, hear等,这些词同样也不能用于现在完成进行时。例如：
I haven’t seen you for ages. 我好久没见到你了。
I have loved her for a long time. 我一直爱她。
3)现在完成时表示到现在为止已经完成的动作,强调结果;而现在完成进行时强调动作的持续性,强调“一直”,往往表示动作仍未结束。例如：
I have been reading this novel. 我一直在读这本小说。(我仍然在读)
I have read two novels. 我已读过两本小说。(可能刚读过,也可能很久以前读的)
9、过去进行时
(1)构成：由助动词be 的过去式 + 现在分词构成。其中be有人称和数的变化,第一、第三人称单数用was,其他用were.
(2)用法：
1)过去进行时动词主要表示在过去某一时刻或某一段时间内正在进行或持续进行的动作。过去进行时经常与过去时配合使用。例如：
This time yesterday, we were having an English lesson. 昨天这个时候,我们正在上英语课。
While we were having supper, all the lights went out. 我们吃饭的时候,灯灭了。
The teacher was giving us a lesson when Tom walked into the room. 老师在给我们上课时,汤姆走进教室。
2)过去进行时动词常用always, continually, frequently 等词连用,表示过去经常发生的行为。这种用法表明带有的感情色彩。例如：
The two brothers were frequently quarreling when they were young. 两兄弟小时候常吵架。
In Qing Dynasty, China was always making concessions to western powers. 清朝时,中国总是对西方列强妥协。
3)过去进行时的主要用法是描述一件事发生的背景；一个长动作延续的时候,另一个短动作发生。
(3)常用的时间状语有this morning, the whole morning, all day yesterday, from nine to ten last evening, when, while等。例如：
My brother fell while he was riding his bicycle and hurt himself.我兄弟骑车时摔了下来,受了伤。
As she was reading the newspaper, Granny fell asleep.(as = when, while,意为"当……之时)
10、过去完成进行时
(1)构成：had been + 动词的现在分词。
(2)用法：表示一直持续到过去某个时间的行为动作,此行为动作或刚结束、或还没结束(可以从上下文看出)。这一时态经常与一般过去时一起使用。例如：
When he came in, I had been trying to repair the TV for a couple of hours. 他进来时,我一直在努力修理电视机好几个小时了
The roads were dangerous. It had been raining for two whole days. 道路很危险。雨一直下了两整天。
11、将来进行时
(1)构成：shall/will be + 现在分词
(2)用法：表示将来某时进行的状态或动作,或按预测将来会发生的事情。例如：
This time next week we shall be working in that factory. 下星期这时候,我们将在那个工厂劳动。
注：将来进行时不表示个人意愿,强调主观上感觉某事即将发生,并对这一事情有着期待,感情色彩较浓,强调动作。一般将来时主要是对某一事情即将发生做一个事实性的说明或陈述,强调事实或意愿。
She'll be coming soon. 她会很快来的。
I'll be meeting him sometime in the future. 将来我一定去见他。
(3)常用的时间状语有soon, tomorrow, this evening,on Sunday, by this time,tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening等。例如：
By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach. 明天此时,我正躺在海滩上呢。
12、过去将来时
(1)构成：由should/would + 动词原形构成。第一人称用should; 第二、三人称用would。
(2)用法：过去将来时表示从过去某时间看将要发生的事情,多用在宾语从句中。还可以表示过去的倾向或过去经常发生的事情。例如：
They asked me if I would go to Guangzhou soon. 他们问我是否很快要去广州。
He’d play the violin when he was in low spirits. 他情绪低落的时候,就拉小提琴。
(3)其他表示过去将来时的结构：
①were/was going to + 动词原形,表示过去的安排、打算或确信某事会发生,多用于口语。如：
I told her I was going to see her that afternoon. 我告诉她我那天下午要去看她。
②were/was to + 动词原形,表示安排,命令或后来将要发生的事。如：
They were to receive salaries from the government. 他们将接受政府的工资。
③were/was about to + 动词原形,表示正要、即将发生的事。如：
Mrs. Brown was about to begin, but Jennie spoke first. 布朗夫人刚要开始,但是珍妮先说话了。
13、时态的呼应
时态的呼应也称时态的一致,是指在复合句中,某些从句(主要是宾语从句等名词性从句)的时态常受主句时态的影响,因而要注意主从句两部分的时态呼应。
(1)主句是现在时态或将来时时,从句可以用任何所需要的时态。
He says his father is/was/will be a teacher. 他说他父亲是(过去是,将来要做)一个教师。
(2)主句是过去时态时,从句的时态要注意下列几点：
①从句与主句动作同时发生,从句须用一般过去时或过去进行时。
I thought he studied hard. 我认为他学习努力。
He told me his son was watching TV. 他告诉我他儿子在看电视。
②从句动作发生在主句动作之后,从句须用过去将来时。例如：
He said he would post the letter. 他说他将要寄这封信。
They did not know when they would go to the Great Wall. 他们不知道什么时候去参观长城。
③从句动作发生在主句动作之前,从句须用过去完成时。例如：
He said he had posted the letter。 他说已经把信发了。
They asked me whether I had been there before. 他们问我以前去没去过那里。
但是,如果从句有具体的过去时间状语,尽管从句动作发生在主句动作之前,有时仍用一般过去时。例如：
She told me her brother died in 1960. 她告诉我她哥哥1960年去世的。
They said they checked everything yesterday. 他们说昨天他们全部检查过了。
另外,从句说的是一般真理或客观事实,即使主句用过去时态,从句仍用一般现在时。例如：
The teacher told the pupils that the earth is round. 老师告诉学生们地球是圆的。
Somebody told me you are a writer. 有人告诉我你是个作家。
除了宾语从句外,其他名词性从句(主语从句、表语从句和同位语从句)一般也要遵守这种时态呼应的规律。而状语从句和定语从句则是根据本身意思的需要选用适当的时态。例如：
He saw the boy whose mother is our teacher. 他见过那个他妈妈是我们老师的男孩。
It was not so hot yesterday as it is today. 昨天没有今天这样热。
14、时态与时间状语
时态 | 时间状语 |
一般现在时 | every…, sometimes, at…, on Sunday等 |
一般过去时 | yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982, just now等 |
一般将来时 | next…, tomorrow, in+一段时间, before+时间点等 |
现在完成时 | for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till/until, up to now, in past years, always, recently等 |
过去完成时 | before, by+过去的时间, until, when, after, once等 |
过去进行时 | this morning, the whole morning, all day, yesterday, from nine to ten last evening… when, while等 |
将来进行时 | soon, tomorrow, this evening, on Sunday, by this time, tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening |
Chapter 3. 动词的语态
一、概念：
动词的语态是动词的一种形式,表示主语和谓语之间语法或语义的关系。英语的语态有两种：主动语态(active voice)和被动语态(passive voice)。主动语态用于主动句,表示主语是动作的执行者。被动语态用于被动句,表示主语是动作的承受者。主动语态的构成方式与动词时态相同,而被动语态由助动词“be+过去分词”构成,有人称、数、时态的变化。
二、英汉两种语言在表达被动方式上的差异：
汉语表达被动语态非常简单明了,用“被”“遭”“受”等词来表示,如“被捕”、“被杀”、“受到凌辱”等。而英语表达被动的方式也不复杂,用“助动词be+动词的过去分词”表示。其中助动词be有人称、数量和时态的变化,而这正是英语被动语态的难点。
三、相关知识点精讲：
1、被动语态的构成
被动语态由“be+及物动词的过去分词”构成。这里要强调一定是及物动词的过去分词,因为不及物动词不能带宾语,也就不可能有被动语态。英语主动语态有16个时态;被动语态常用的有8个,以give为例说明如下：
时态 | 动词形式 |
一般现在时 | Am/is/are given |
一般过去时 | Was/were given |
一般将来时 | Shall/will be given |
现在进行时 | Am/is/are being given |
过去进行时 | Was/were being given |
过去将来时 | Should/would be given |
现在完成时 | Has/have been given |
过去完成时 | Had been given |
被动语态的疑问句是将第一个助动词移到主语之前、句末用问号;否定式是在第一个助动词后加not或never等其他否定词、句末用句号。例如：“During the interview, were you asked questions in English?” “No, I wasn’t asked questions in English.”
2、被动语态的用法
1) 不知道或没有必要指出动作的执行者。换个说法,有一件事情不知道是谁干的或者不想说出是谁干的,这时就用被动语态。
例如：These fighters are imported from Russia. 这些战斗机是从俄国进口的。
2) 说话或发表意见时,为了显得客观公正,也常用被动语态。例如：
He’s said/believed/reported to be in the U. S. A. 据说/据信/据报道他在美国。
常用句型(that后面跟句子)：It is said that……. 据说；It is reported that……. 据报道；It is hoped that希望；It is believed that……. 人们相信；It is announced that……. 据宣布；it is (well) known that……. 众所周知；It has been decided that……. 已经决定；It is supposed that……. 人们认为；It is suggested that……. 有人建议；It must be remembered that……. 务必记住；It is taken for granted that…….被视为当然；It is thought that… 大家认为
3、主动句变被动句的注意事项
1)时态不能改变;
2)变为被动语态后,谓语动词要和被动语态的主语在人称、数上保持一致。还要作如下变动：把主动语态的宾语变为被动语态的主语;主动语态的主语放在by的后面,组成介词短语,再把这个介词短语放在被动语态的谓语动词之后。在动作的执行者无须说明或不必要强调时,by短语可以省略。例如：
Somebody has warned us to be careful of rats.→We have been warned to be careful of rats.
3)如果主动语态有两个宾语(直接宾语和间接宾语),变为被动语态时,可将其中任何一个宾语变为主语,另一个不变。但较常见的是将间接宾语变为被动语态的主语。例如：
The reporters asked the president some questions. 记者们问了总统一些问题。
→The president was asked some questions by the reporters. ( 变间接宾语为主语)
→Some questions were asked the president by the reporters. (变直接宾语为主语)
注：①感官动词主动语态的宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式,变为被动语态时,该不定式前要加"to"。例如：
The teacher made me go out of the classroom.→I was made to go out of the classroom.
②情态动词+ be +过去分词,构成被动语态。
4、含有情态动词的被动语态：句中含有情态动词时,其被动语态的结构是：情态动词+be+过去分词。例如：
This book may not be taken out of the reading room. 这本书不允许带出阅览室。
5、不能用于被动语态的动词
1)不及物动词或不及物动词短语不能用于被动语态,因为它们没有宾语。动词如：die,end(vi. 结束), fail,happen, last, lie, sit, spread, stand；词组如：break out, come true, fall asleep, lose heart, take place。例如：
After the fire, very little remained of my house. 大火过后,我家烧得所剩无几。
注：要想正确地使用被动语态,就须注意哪些动词是及物的,哪些是不及物的。特别是一词多义的动词往往有两种用法。解决这一问题唯有在学习过程中多留意积累。
2)系动词无被动语态,如appear, disappear, become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn等。
3)表示状态而不是动作的及物动词或动词短语不能用于被动语态。动词如：cost, deserve, fit, have (有、使),hold (盛下、装下),lack, resemble, suit, own, notice, want, wish；词组如belong to, take part in, take place of,arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, walk into, agree with；例如：
Your story agrees with what had already been heard.你说的与我们听说的一致。
3)短语动词中有些用于被动结构,有些不可以。但没有规律可循,只能个别掌握。
4)带同源宾语的及物动词如die/death, dream/dream, live/life等,以及反身代词,相互代词,不能用于被动语态。例如：
She dreamed a bad dream last night. 她昨晚做了个恶梦。
5)下列及物动词有特殊的宾语,也不能变为被动语态。例如：
The police officer shouted his loudest to stop the car. /They usually take a walk after supper.
6)当宾语是不定式时,很少用于被动语态。例如：(对) She likes to swim.；(错) To swim is liked by her.
6、关于被动语态的几点说明
1)有些动词形式上是主动,意义上是被动。例如：
Am I to blame? 我该受责备吗?/The house is to let.房子要出租。/ The door will not shut/lock.门关/锁不上。
2)make, see, watch, hear, notice, feel等使役动词和感官动词的宾语后面可以接不带to的不定式作宾补。但在被动语态中,不定式符号to必须补上。例如：They made him go.他们让他去。→He was made to go.他被要求去了。
3)除助动词be外,动词get有时也可跟过去分词构成被动语态,是比较口语化的一种被动语态。这种结构中很少用by短语。
例如：I got lost in the huge market. 在那个巨大的市场中我迷失了方向。
In the end this story got translated into English. 这故事最后被译成了英文。
4)“have/get/make +宾语+过去分词”这个句型也表达了一种被动的意思。例如：
He got his leg broken when playing football. 踢足球的时候他把腿弄断了。
I’ll have the bike repaired in no time. 我一会就把自行车修好。
Explain it clearly and make yourself understood. 解释清楚些,让别人理解你的话。
5)need, want, deserve,require+doing,be worth doing表被动。
6)短语动词的被动语态： 短语动词是一个整体,不可丢掉后面的介词或副词。例如：
My sister will be taken care of by Grandma./ Such a thing has never been heard of before.
7)主动形式表示被动意义
①wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell等。例如：The book sells well.
②blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build等。例如：I was to blame for the accident. /Much work remains.
8) 被动形式表示主动意义,如 be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get married等。例如：He is graduated from a famous university.
7、let 的用法
1)当let后只有一个单音节动词,变被动语态时,可用不带to 的不定式。例如：They let the strange go.→The strange was let go.
2)当let后宾补较长时,let通常不用被动语态,而用allow或permit 代替。例如：
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital. →I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.
Chapter 4. 动词的语气
一、概念
语气表示说话人对劝词所示的动作或所处的状态持有的态度或看法,语气有三种：陈述语气,祈使语气和虚拟语气。
本章重点介绍虚拟语气。虚拟语气用来表示说话人的主观愿望或假想,所说的是一个条件,不一定是事实,或与事实相反。虚拟语气在条件句中应用比较多。条件句可分为两类,一类为真实条件句,一类为非真实条件句。非真实条件句表示的是假设的或实际可能性不大的情况,故采用虚拟语气。
真实条件句用于陈述语气,假设的情况有可能发生。各种结构参见下表：
句型 | 条件从句 | 主句 |
一般现在时 | shall/will + 动词原形 | |
祈使句 | ||
情态动词一般现在时 |
例如：If he comes, he will bring his violin. 如果他来,会带小提琴来的。
注：①在真实条件句中,主句不能用be going to表示将来,该用shall, will.
②表示真理时,主句谓语动词不用shall (will) +动词原形,而直接用一般现在时的动词形式。
在英语中,虚拟语气是通过句子中谓语动词的特殊形式来表示的。
二、相关知识点精讲
1、虚拟语气用于表示假设的条件状语从句：相当于汉语的“假如…”,“要是…”等。
注：虚拟语气的条件句是用谓语动词的特殊形式来表示与现在、过去事实相反的情况或对将来发生的情况表示怀疑,和直陈语气条件句的谓语动词形式以及所表达的含义完全不同。虚拟语气条件句中所用的谓语动词过去式、过去完成式、过去将来式等只表示不同的虚拟语气,与直陈语气句子的过去时、过去完成时等毫无关系,在学习时应注意加以区别,不要混淆。
2、辨别if 引导真实条件句和if引导的虚拟条件句的区别：
例如：If he has time, he will go with us.= Probably he has time and will go with us.
If he had time, he would go with us.=But in fact he has no time.
3、虚拟条件句中,时态的基本特点是时态往后推移,主句和从句的谓与动词构成形式如下表：
条件状语从句中的谓语动词 | 主句的谓语动词形式 | 例句 | |
对现在的虚拟,表示与现在的事实相反 | 1、行为动词用did 形式 2、be动词用were | would (should, could, might) + do | If they didn’t take physical exercises every day, they wouldn’t be so healthy. |
对过去的虚拟,表示与过去的事实相反 | had + done | would (should, could, might)+ have done | If you had taken my advice, you wouldn’t have failed in the examination. |
对将来的虚拟,表示与将来的事实相反 | 1、行为动词用did 2、should+do 3、were to+do | Should,would,could,might +do
| If I saw him tomorrow, I would pass your note to him. |
试比较下列几个句子：
①If it rains tomorrow, our picnic will be put off. (Illustration：The weather has been very changeable these days.)
条件状语从句的谓语动词用现在时,表示说话人认为下雨的可能性很大。
②If it rained tomorrow, our picnic would be put off. (Illustration：The weather has been very good these days.)
条件状语从句的谓语动词用过去时,表示说话人认为下雨的可能性不大。
③If it should rain tomorrow, our picnic would be put off. (万一明天下雨,我们的野餐就推迟)。
条件状语从句的谓语动词用should+动词原形,说明下雨的可能性很小或没有可能,如果下雨,那将是出乎意料的。
④If it were to rain tomorrow, our picnic would be put off.这句话与上一句意思几乎一模一样。
4、混合时间的虚拟语气
当条件状语从句表示的行为和主句表示的行为所发生的时间不一致时,主句和从句的谓语动词的形式应分别根据各自所表示的时间加以调整。这与以上三种情况不同,虚拟语气的谓语动词形式没有遵循以上规律。
例如：If I had received the passport yesterday, I would start today. (从句与过去事实相反,主句与现在事实相反。)
If China had not been liberated, the working people would still be leading a miserable life.
5、倒装句中的虚拟语气
在书面语中,如果条件状语从句的谓语中有were, had 或should, 就可以省略if, 并将were, had , could或should 放到句首,谓语主语之前,用 “Were/Had/Should/could+ 主语”的形式。这种虚拟语气在意义上与带if 的条件状语从句相同。如果从句没有were, had, could或should,就不能省略if。而将条件从句的主语置于were, had, should, could之后。
例如：If you had been here earlier, you would have seen him.→Had you been here earlier, you would have seen him.
在虚拟条件状语从句中,省略了if的倒装形式的句首不能用动词的缩略形式。
例如：Were it not for the expense, I would go to Italy.(√); Weren’t it for the expense, I would go to Italy.(×);
6、宾语从句中的虚拟语气
在表示命令、建议、要求等一类动词后面的宾语从句中,用虚拟语气。如beg, move(提议), arrange, order, suggest(建议), propose, require, desire, demand, request, insist(坚持要某人做某事时), command, insist +should do。Should可以省略,但不可用would等来替代,引导宾语从句的that不能省略。主句所使用的动词时态不限。
例如：The doctor ordered that she (should) stay in bed for a few days./The commander ordered that the bridge (should) be bombed
注： suggest表示“暗示”时,宾语从句不用虚拟语气。Insist表示“坚持认为”,后面强调的是事实时,宾语从句也不用虚拟语气。
例如：The neighbor suggested that his wife was having an affair.
(错) You pale face suggests that you(should)be ill./(对) Your pale face suggests that you are ill.
(错) I insisted that you(should)be wrong./(对) I insisted that you were wrong.
7、表语从句,同位语从句中的虚拟语气
suggestion, proposal, request, idea, plan, order, advice等名词后面的表语从句、同位语从句中要用虚拟语气,即(should)+动词原形。should 可以省略,从句的引导词that 不能省略。
例如：I make a proposal that we(should)hold a meeting next week.
My idea is that we(should)get more people to attend the conference.
8、主语从句中的虚拟语气
It is demanded / necessary / a pity + that…等结构的主语从句,谓语动词用should 加动词原形,should 可省略。
It is
| 可用的词有三类 |
that |
(should)do |
suggested, ordered, required, proposed, demanded, requested, insisted等 | |||
important, necessary, natural, imperative, strange, essential, vital, desirable, advisable, better等 | |||
a pity, a shame, no wonder等 |
9、比较if only与only if ：only if表示"只有"；if only则表示"如果……就好了"。If only多用于虚拟语气,但也用于陈述语气。
例如：I wake up only if the alarm clock rings. /If only the alarm clock had rung.
10、几个常用虚拟语气的特殊句型
⑴It is (high) time (that) “(现在)该…”句型
It is(high)time that后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式(be的过去式用were)或用should加动词原形,但should不可省略。
例如：It is high time that the children should go to bed.
⑵I would rather (that)…“我宁可…”句型：谓语动词用过去式(be的过去式用were)
例如：I’d rather I were in the rain now.
⑶as if/as though,或even if/even though引导的从句
只看从句动作发生的时间,与主句的时态没有关系。如果从句中表示的动作发生在过去,则谓语动词用had+过去分词形式;如果指的时现在的状况,则用过去式(be用were);指将来则用would(should, could)+动词原形。
例如：He speaks English so fluently as if he had studied English in the U.S.
Even if he were here, he could not solve the problem.
⑷Suppose(that)祈使句
从句的谓语动词变化与as if后面的动词变化规律相同,用过去式、过去完成式、或过去将来式。意思是“假如…”,但suppose 是动词,不是连词。
⑸for fear that或lest引导的从句
表示“怕…”“万一…”等意思,从句的谓语动词用should+动词原形,should 可以省略。
例如：The officer forbade the use of artillery lest the city’s industry be damaged.
Lest the wall should collapse, they evacuated from the building.
She closed the windows for fear that she (should) catch cold.
⑹习惯用语,如：May you be happy!
11、wish的用法
1)wish后面的宾语从句的谓语动词应使用虚拟语气, 表示很难实现或不能实现的愿望,可以翻译为“可惜…；….就好了； 悔不该…； 但愿…。”其宾语从句的动词形式为：
主句谓语 | 从句谓语 | |
wish | 时态 | 谓语动词的形式 |
现在时,表示与wish同时发生 | 动词用过去时,be动词用were | |
过去时,表示在wish之前发生的动作 | 动词用had done,be用had been | |
将来时,表示在wish之后发生的动作 | 动词用would do; should do,be用would be ; should be | |
例如：I wish it would rain tomorrow. 我希望明天下雨就好了。
2) wish to do；wish sb / sth to do。
例如：I wish the manager to be informed at once.
注：wish 与hope接宾语从句的区别在于：hope表示一般可以实现的希望,宾语从句用陈述语气。Wish表示很难或不大可能实现的愿望,宾语从句用虚拟语气。
12、其它
1)用介词短语without…/ But for/except…代替条件状语从句(可以改为条件状语从句)。
例如：Without proper means of control, a nuclear reactor would explode. 如果没有恰当的控制手段,核反应堆就会爆炸。
But for(except, without) your help, I would have failed.
2)用其他方式代替条件状语从句(可以改写为条件状语从句)
①用动词不定式,例如：It would produce bad results to do that. =If you did that/should do that, it would produce bad results.
②用but,例如：She would have come, but she wasn’t informed, nor invited. =She would have come, if she had been informed or invited.
③用比较级,例如：A more responsible person would not have left the work half done. =If you (he, she) were more responsible, you (he, she) would not have left the work half done.
Chapter 5. 助动词
一、概念：
助动词是辅助主要动词构成各种时态,语态,语气以及否定或疑问结构的动词。助动词分为时态助动词和结构助动词两种,本身没有独立的词义,不能单独做谓语,在句子中只起语法作用,和实意动词一起构成谓语(叫复合谓语),表达否定,疑问,时态,语态和其他语法关系。其基本形式和作用如下表：
原形 | 现在式 | 过去式 | 过去分词 | 现在分词 | 作用 |
Be | Am, is, are | Was, were | Been | Being | 构成各种进行时态和被动语态 |
Have | Has, have | Had | —— | —— | 构成各种完成时态 |
do | Does, do | Did | —— | —— | 构成疑问句和否定句、加强语气,代替前面相同的动词 |
Shall | —— | Should | —— | —— | 构成各种将来时态 |
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、助动词be的用法
1) be +现在分词,构成进行时态。例如：English is becoming more and more important. 英语现在越来越重要。
2) be +过去分词,构成被动语态。例如：He’s not respected by the press. 他们不受报界的尊重。
3) be +动词不定式,可表示下列内容：
a.表示最近、未来的计划或安排。例如：We are to teach the freshmen.我们要教新生。
说明： 这种用法也可以说成是一种将来时态表达法。
b.表示命令。例如：You are to explain this.对此你要做出解释。
c.征求意见。例如：How am I to answer him?我该怎样答复他?
d.表示相约、商定。例如：We are to meet at the school gate at seven tomorrow morning.我们明天早晨7点在校门口集合。
2、助动词have的用法
1)have +过去分词,构成完成时态。例如：By the end of last month, they had finished half of their work.
2)have + been +现在分词,构成完成进行时。例如：I have been studying English for ten years.我一直在学英语,已达十年之久。
3)have +been +过去分词,构成完成式被动语态。例如：English has been taught in China for many years. 中国教英语已经多年。
3、助动词do 的用法
1)构成一般疑问句。例如：Do you want to pass the CET?
2)do + not 构成否定句。例如：In the past, many students did not know the importance of English.
3)构成否定祈使句。例如：Don't be so absent-minded.不要这么心不在焉。
说明：构成否定祈使句只用do,不用did和does。
4)放在动词原形前,加强该动词的语气。例如：Do come to my birthday party.一定来参加我的生日宴会。
If you do know, answer me in a loud voice so that all may hear. 如果你的确知道,就大声回答我,以便大家都能听见。
5)用于倒装句。例如：Never did I hear of such a thing.
说明：引导此类倒装句的副词有never, seldom, rarely, little, only, so, well等。
6)用作代动词。例如：He knows how to drive a car, doesn't he?他知道如何开车,对吧?
4、助动词shall和will的用法
1)助动词shall/will构成一般将来时,should/would构成过去将来时。
2) shall 用在第一、三人称作主语的疑问句中,来征求意见,表示“要不要……”
例如：Shall the house be insured against fire? 要给房子保火险吗?
3) shall 用于所有人称,表示说话人的决心、保证、许诺、威胁、警告、命令等强烈的感情。
例如：You shall suffer for this. 你会为这事吃苦头/付出代价的!
As a man sows, so he shall reap. 善有善报,恶有恶报。(谚语)
They hope to undermine our unity, they shall fail. 他们希望破坏我们的团结：他们不会成功的。
4) will可以表示“愿意、肯、会、固执”等意义,而非将来。
例如：I meant to reason with you, but you won’t reason. 我打算和你讲理,但是你就是不讲理。
5) will可以表示倾向、习惯(总是会,老是等意思),在否定句中可以表示“不肯、不能”等意思。
例如：Oil and water will not mix. 油和水是不会混合在一起的。
5、助动词should, would的用法
1)should无词义,只是shall的过去形式,与动词原形构成过去将来时,只用于第一人称。
例如： I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week. 我昨天给他打电话,问他我下周干什么。
2) would也无词义,是will的过去形式,与动词原形构成过去将来时,用于第二、第三人称。
3) would 可以表示过去的习惯,类似used to。
例如：When we were children, we would go skating every winter. 小的时候,每年冬天我们都去滑冰。
Chapter 6. 情态动词
一、概念：
情态动词是表示能力,义务,必须,猜测等说话人的语气或情态的动词,不表示动作或状态,因而不能单独做谓语,必须和实意动词或系动词的原形一起构成谓语,没有人称和数的变化。把情态动词放在句首、句尾用问号便构成疑问句;在其后加上not或never等否定词就构成否定句。常用的情态动词有can, could; may, might; must; should; need; dare; ought to 等。
二.相关知识点精讲：
1、can/could 的用法
1)表能力：表能力时意味着凭体力或脑力或技术等可以无甚阻力地去做某事。can表示现在;could表示过去(多用于间接引语)。因为can/could不能和其他助动词连用,所以表示将来式时用will be able to。
例如：At that time we thought the story could not be true.
2)表可能性：多用于否定与疑问结构中,但也可用在肯定句中, could的语气较can更加不肯定。
That can/could be very awkward. 那可就太尴尬了。
注：can 用在肯定句中表示理论上的可能性(一时的可能),may 在肯定句中表示现实的可能性。
例如：The road may be blocked. 这条路可能不通了。
3) 表示“请求”(疑问句中)、“允许”,常见于口语。Could 比 Can 委婉。回答一律用 can 或 cannot, 也可以用mustn’t.
例如：——Could I use your bike?——Yes, you can.
4)Could/can+have done 结构表示对过去发生的事情的“怀疑”或“不肯定”。 could 加完成式还用于肯定句时一般表过去可能完成而却未完成的动作。
例如：What you referred to just now can have made her very sad.
你刚刚所谈到的可能令他很伤心。
注：如表具体做某一件事的能力时,则须用 be able to。Can表示一贯的能力 ,be able to表示客观能力和通过努力可以达到的能力。
例如：I can’t swim. But I am sure I will be able to swim through more practicing.
The fire spread through the hotel, but everyone was able to get out
2、may/might 的用法
1)表示允许或请求允许;might语气更礼貌。
例如：She asked if she might have my bike. 她问是否可以借用我的自行车。
注：can/could和may/might 都可以表示允许和请求允许。can最直截了当;could 礼貌客气;may 既尊重又婉转礼貌;might 带者太多的虚礼,所以很少使用。如：
直截了当 | Can I |
Ask you for help?
|
礼貌客气 | Could I | |
尊重婉转 | May I | |
(虚礼)尊重婉转 | Might I |
2)当回答由may 引起的问题时, 肯定回答：Yes, of course. Yes, you can/may；否定答语要用No, you can’t/may not /mustn’t /I’m afraid not,表示“不许可”、“不应该”、“不行”。
3)表示可能性,是“也许”之意。这时may和might无时间上的差别,只是might在语气上更不肯定一些。
注：表示可能性时,may/might只用于肯定和否定句中,不用于疑问句中。
3)表示建议(可和as well 连用),译为“最好,还是……的好”
例如：You may(might)as well stay where you are.
4)表示祝愿,例如：May you be happy!
5)may (might) + have +done表示对过去发生行为的推测,含有“想必”、“也许是”的意思。
例如：He might not have settled the question. 他可能尚未解决那个问题。
3、must的用法
1)表示义务、命令或劝告,是“必须”之意,对自己、对别人均可。
例如：We must take this seriously. 我们必须严肃对待这事。
2)must be +表语的结构,通常表示猜测,含有“肯定、一定”之意。(只用在肯定句中,在否定句或疑问句中,用can/could)
3)must 的否定式有两个：当回答由must引起的问题时,否定答复要用needn’t或don’t have to 表示“不必”、“无须”、“用不着”、“不一定”的意义。当回答can或may开头的问句,表示口气很强的“不应该”、“不许可”、“禁止”时,就用must not。
例如：Must I go tomorrow?明天我必须去吗?——Yes, please.是的,请吧！/No , you needn’t. 不,你不必去。
4)must +have +过去分词的结构,常用在肯定句中,表示对过去发生行为的推测,含有“一定”、“准是”的意思。否定和疑问句用can。例如：She must have studied English before.她以前一定学过英语。
注：must仅用于表示现在和未来,其他时态用have to,但在间接引语中可用must表示过去
例如：He asked me if he must leave at once and I told him he didn’t have to. 他问我是否他必须马上离开,我告诉他不必。
注：我们先对表示“推测”的表达法作一个总结：
(1)表示对现在和将来状况的推测：must 一定,may 可能,might 也许,can’t 不可能。从“一定”到“不可能”,可能性逐渐降低。
(2)对已经过去的情况的推测：must, may, might, can’t/couldn’t 这些词后面分别加上have + 过去分词,表示“一定…”,“可能…”, “也许…”,“不可能…”。从“一定”到“不可能”,可能性逐渐降低。
4、should/ought to的用法
1)表示道义上的责任,义务或要求,用于疑问句中询问对方的意愿,有时表示劝告。ought to的否定式为ought not to /oughtn’t to,should 的否定式为should not。
例如：You don’t look well. You ought to go to see the doctor.
Ought you to smoke so much?你应该抽这样多烟吗?
2)表示推测和可能性,表示应该、必须,是“应该”之意。 表示对现在和将来的推测。
例如：If the train is up to time, John should/ought to be here any minute now. 如果火车晚点的话,JOHN现在马上就应该到了。
3) should/ought to have+过去分词”表示对过去的推测,意 思 是“应该已经”。有时表示“应该做而没有做”,是“本应该”的意思;“should not/ought not to have+过去分词”表示“做了不应该做的事情”,是“本不该”的意思,因而它们都含有责备的语气。
例如：One should have been asleep and the other on watch. 本应该一个睡觉,另一个站岗。
注：ought to 和should 在大多数情况下可以互换,ought to在间接引语中表过去时形式不变
4) 表示讲话人惊奇,失望,愤怒等感情
例如：What’s happened to that money? How should I know? 那些钱怎么了?-我怎么知道?
It’s strange that he should have lost his temper for such trivial things as that. 真奇怪,他竟然为这么小的事情发脾气。
5)在“It is natural (strange, natural, necessary, surprised, impossible, important ) that……”句型中,主语从句中的谓语动词要用should +动词原形”表示“理所当然”、“奇怪”、“必要”、“惊异”等的意思。在lest(以免)、for fear (that) (以防)、in case(以备万一)等之后也要用should+动词原形;在advise, sugest, order, demand, request 等的从句中should+do”。
例如：It is necessary that he(should) be sent there at once.有必要马上派他到那里去。
5、have to的用法
1)have to的含义与must是很接近的,只是have to 比较强调客观需要,must着重说明主观看法。
2)have to 能用于各种时态。
例如：We will have to reconsider the whole thing.这一切我们将不得不重新加以考虑。
3)have to 的否定式：don’t have to do 表示“不必做……”之意。
6、shall的用法
1)用于第一人称征求对方的意见,如：What shall I wear on the journey? 我路上穿什么好呢?
2)shall 用于第二、三人称时表允诺,警告,命令,威胁(现已少见),如：You shall have it back tomorrow.你明天可以将它拿回。
注：情态动词should一般不应被认为是情态动词shall的过去式。
7、will和would的用法
1)表示意志,决心或愿望。例如：Surely we will support all the people in the world in their struggle for peace.
2)will表示经常性、习惯性、倾向性,would表示过去的习惯行为。例如：He would come to see me when he was in Beijing.
3)用于第二人称作主语的疑问句中,表示对对方的请求,would的语气比will委碗。
例如：Would/will you kindly tell me the way to the station? 请问到火车站怎么走?
4)表可能性。例如：This will be the book you are looking for.这可能就是你要找的书。
8、need和dare的用法
1)need的用法：作为情态动词,need一般只用于否定句和疑问句中；Need 作为实意动词比作为情态动词常用的多。实意动词need 可用在所有句型中。need做实义动词时,后面的宾语如果是动名词,用主动形式表示被动意义,如果是不定式的被动形式,表示被动意义。类似need的这种用法,还有require, want等。
现在时 | 过去时 | 将来时 | |
情态动词need | You need (not) do He need (not) do | You need (not) do He need (not) do | |
实义动词 need | You (don’t) need to do He needs (doesn’t need) to do | You needed (didn’t need) to do He needed (didn’t need) to do | You will (not) need to do He will (not) need to do |
2)dare的用法：情态动词dare通常用于疑问句,否定句和条件状语从句中,表示“敢”的意思；亦可做实意动词。
句型 | 时态 | 动词dare | |
情态动词dare | 实义动词 dare | ||
肯定句 | 现在时 | dare do | dare to do / dares to do |
过去时 | dared do | dared to do | |
否定句 | 现在时 | dare not do / daren’t do | do not dare to do / does not dare to do |
过去时 | dared not do | did not dare to do | |
疑问句 | 现在时 | Dare he do ? | Do you dare to do ? / Does he dare to do ? |
过去时 | Dared he do ? | Did you dare to do ? / Did he dare to do ? | |
例如：If you dare speak to me like this again, you’ll be sorry.
3)needn’t have v-ed 表示过去做了某事,但没有做的必要, 意为“本没必要…”。
例如： You needn’t have waken me up,Because I don’t have to go to work today.
9、情态动词+have+ done小结
情态动词+have+ done | 含义 |
must have+过去分词 | 表示对过去的推测,意“一定已经,想必已经,准是已经….”,只用于肯定句中；若要表示否定,要用“can’t/couldn’t+ have+过去分词”,意 思 是“不可能”。 |
May/might have done | 表示对过去的推测,意思是“也许已经,可能已经…”。用于肯定或否定句中。疑问句中用can或could. “might(不是may)have+过去分词”也表示“本来可以…”的意思,含有责备的口气,用来批评人。 |
needn’t have done | 表示“作了不必做或不需要做的事”。可译成“大可不必”,“本来不需要”。 |
can/could have done | 在疑问句、否定句中,表示怀疑和不可能,这时它们没有时间上的差别,只是could的语气更弱一些；could have done(但不是can)在肯定句中,表示“那时本来可以…;差点就要…”,有时用来进行婉转地批评(与might同意,但语气更强一些)。 |
should/ought to have done | 表示“过去应该做谋事却没有做”;“should not/ought not to have+过去分词”表示“做了不应该做的事”。含有责备或遗憾的意思。 |
例如：Don’t do that again. You might have been fired. 别那么干了,会把你解雇的。(责备,警告)
When she heard the news, she could have cried. 听了这消息,她简直要哭出来了。
10、情态动词间的比较
区别 | |
can 与be able to | can在表示“能力”时与be able to同义。但是can的时态形式不如be able to多。在一般将来时和现在完成时中只能用be able to。在过去时中,could表示具备某种能力,但不一定做事;而was able to表示努力设法去做谋事,成功后说明有能力,相当managed to do或succeeded in doing。这时,could和was able to是不能互换的。例如：He was able to swim across the river in fifteen minutes last week. (不能用could) |
must与have to | Must 强调主观意志,必要性来自说话者的主观意志。 have to 强调客观因素。注意：must not表示“绝对不可”; don’t have to(或 haven’t got to )表示“不必,没必要”,两者意思极为不同。英国英语中常用needn’t来代替 haven’t got to 或don’t have to |
would与used to | would 可表示反复发生的动作或某种倾向,不表示现在不了。used to表示过去的习惯动作或状态,强调现在已不存在。 |
注：used to +v, be used to +v-ing和be used to +v的比较
①used to +v意为“过去常常”,“过去一直”；be used to +v-ing / n(名词)意为“习惯于”；be used to +v意为“被用来(做某事)”。
②used to只表示过去,而be used to +v-ing / n可表示现在、过去或将来。
11、用作情态动词的其他短语：would rather, would sooner, would (just) as soon, had rather, had better, had sooner, can not but, may (just) as well等。
注：这些短语后一般直接跟动词原形.would (had) rather, would (had) sooner, would (just) as soon后可跟that 引导的从句,that 常省去,从句要用虚拟语气。对现在和将来的假设用过去时,对过去的假设用过去完成时(“时态的倒退”)。
例如：I would sooner you hadn’t asked me to speak yesterday.
Chapter 7. 动词不定式
一、概念：
动词不定式由to+动词原形构成。这里的to是不定式标志,没有词义。不定式具有名词、形容词或副词的某些语法功能,又有动词的时态和语态的特点及作用。
常见的形式如表所示(以及物动词do为例),不及物动词没有被动语态。
时态\语态 | 主动 | 被动 |
一般式 | to do | to be done |
进行式 | to be doing | / |
完成式 | to have done | to have been done |
完成进行式 | to have been doing | / |
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、有些动词可以用不定式作宾语,大致上有三种情况。
1)有些及物动词用不定式作宾语,结构为动词+不定式。例如：
afford | aim | agree | arrange | ask | decide | bother | care | choose | demand |
desire | determine | elect | endeavor | hope | fail | help | learn | long 渴望 | mean |
manage | offer | plan | pretend | refuse | tend | undertake | expect | hate | intend |
例如：The driver failed to see the other car in time. 司机没能及时看见另一辆车。
He offered to help me. 他表示愿意帮助我。
2)有些动词除了可以用不定式作宾语,还用不定式作补语,即有动词+宾语+不定式的结构。例如：
ask | choose | expect | help | want | beg | intend |
like/love | need | prefer | prepare | wish |
例如：I like you to keep everything tidy.我喜欢你使每件东西都保持整洁。
3)有些动词或动词词组可以用动词+疑问词+不定式的结构作宾语。例如：
decide | know | consider | forget | learn | explain | remember |
show, | wonder | find out | tell | inquire |
例如：There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can't make up my mind which to buy.
2、不定式作补语
1)有些有动词+宾语+不定式的结构。例如：
advise | allow | cause | challenge | command | urge | compel |
drive 驱使 | enable | encourage | forbid | force | train | impel |
induce | instruct | invite | like/love | order | tell | permit |
make | let | have | want | get | send | warn |
persuade | request |
例如：Father will not allow us to play on the street./The officer ordered his men to fire.
注：有些动词如make,have,get,want等可用不定式作做宾补,也可用分词作宾补。现在分词表达主动,也表达正在进行,过去分词表达被动。
2)有些有动词+宾语+不定式的结构,不定式的动词往往是be,不定式一般可以省去。例如：consider、find、believe、think、declare(声称)、appoint、guess、fancy(设想)、guess、judge、imagine、know。
例如：Charles Babbage is generally considered to have invented the first computer.
3)有些动词可以跟there +to be的结构。例如：believe、expect、intend、like、love、mean、prefer、want、wish、understand。
例如：We didn't expect there to be so many people there. 我们没料到会有那么多人在那里。
3、不定式作主语
不定式作主语,往往用it作形式主语,真正的主语不定式放至句子的后面。
例如：It's necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it. 不用车的时候,锁车是有必要的。
It seemed selfish of him not to give them anything. 他不给他们任何东西,这显得太自私了。
但是,用不定式作主语的句子中还有一个不定式作表语时,不能用It is… to…的句型。另外,这样的句子,不能用动名词作表语。
4、It's for sb.和 It's of sb.
句子中,由于表语形容词性质的不同,导致了不定式逻辑主语标志用for或of的区别。
1)for sb.句型中的形容词一般为表示事物的特征特点,表示客观形式的形容词,如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等：例如：It's very hard for him to study two languages. 对他来说学两门外语是很难的。
2)of sb句型中的形容词一般为表示性格,品德,心智能力,表示主观感情或态度的形容词,如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。例如：It's very nice of you to help me. 你来帮助我,你真是太好了。
用for还是用of 的另一种辨别方法：用介词for或of后面的逻辑主语作句子的主语,用介词前边的形容词作表语,造个句子。如果通顺用of,不通则用for。
5、不定式作表语：不定式可放在be动词后面,形成表语。例如：My work is to clean the room every day.
6、不定式作定语：不定式做定语通常要放在被修饰的词后,往往表示未发生的动作。例如：There was nothing to bring home that morning.
7、不定式作状语
1)目的状语：常用结构为to do , only to do(仅仅为了), in order to do, so as to do, so(such)… as to…(如此…以便…)。例如：
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus. 他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。
I come here only to say good-bye to you. 我来仅仅是向你告别。
2)作结果状语,可以表示没有预料到的或事与愿违的结果,不定式要放在句子后面。
I awoke to find my truck gone. 我醒来发现箱子不见了。
He searched the room only to find nothing. 他搜索了房间,没发现什么。
3)表原因,例如：She wept to see the sight. 她一看到这情形就哭了。
4)表示理由和条件,例如：You will do well to speak more carefully.
8、用作介词的to：to可以用作介词,也可用作不定式的标示。下面的to都用作介词：admit to、object to、be accustomed to、be used to、stick to、turn to开始、look forward to、be devoted to、pay attention to、contribute to、apologize to、devote oneself to
9、省去to 的动词不定式
1)情态动词(除ought 外) 后。
2)使役动词 let, have, make后,感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后。
注：被动语态中不能省去to。例如：The boss made them work the whole night. =They were made to work the whole night.
3) would rather,had better句型后；
4) Why… / why no…句型后；
5) help后可带to,也可不带to, help sb(to) do sth；
6) but和except后。but前是实义动词do时,后面出现的不定式不带to。
7)由and, or和than连接的两个不定式,第二个to 可以省去：
8)通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think等词后作宾补时,可以省去to be。例如：He is supposed (to be) nice.
10、动词不定式的否定式：在不定式标志to前加上not。例如：She pretended not to see me when I passed by.
11、不定式的特殊句型
1) too…to…句型：
①too…to,太…以至于…。例如：He is too excited to speak. 他太激动了,说不出话来。
②如在too前有否定词,则整个句子用否定词表达肯定,too 后那个词表达一种委婉含义,意 为"不太"。例如：
It's never too late to mend. 改过不嫌晚。(谚语)
③当too 前面有only, all, but时,意思是：非常… 等于very。例如：
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 能帮助你我非常高兴。
He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。
2)so as to句型：
①表示目的；它的否定式是so as not to do。例如：Go in quietly so as not to wake the baby.轻点进去,别惊醒了婴儿。
②表示结果。例如：Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? 劳驾,现在几点了。
3)Why not句型："Why not +动词原形"表达向某人提出建议,翻译为："为什么不……?" "干吗不……?"。例如：
Why not take a holiday? 干吗不去度假?
12、不定式的时态和语态
1)一般式表示的动词,有时与谓语动词表示的动作同时发生,有时发生在谓语动词的动作之后,例如
I hope to see you again. = I hope that I'll see you again. 我希望再见到你。
2)完成式表示的动作发生在谓语动词表示的动作之前。例如：I'm sorry to have given you so much trouble.
3)进行式表示动作正在进行,与谓语动词表示的动作同时发生。例如：He seems to be eating something.
4)完成进行式表示动作从过去开始并延续至说话的时候。例如：
She is known to have been working on the problem for many years. 我们知道她研究这问题有好几年了。
13、动名词与不定式
1)动名词与不定式的区别：
动名词表达的是：状态,性质,心境,抽象,经常性,已发生的；不定式表达的是：目的,结果,原因,具体,一次性,将发生的。
2)有些动词如continue接不定式或动名词作宾语,意义基本相同。
3)有些动词如continue接不定式或动名词作宾语,意义大相径庭。常见的,在特殊词精讲中专门讨论。
14、特殊词精讲
动词 | 动词形式 | 例句 |
stop | stop to do：停止,中断做某事后去做另一件事 stop doing：停止做某事。 | She reached the top of the hill and stopped to rest on a big rock by the side of the path. |
forget | forget to do：忘记要去做某事 forget doing：忘记做过某事。 | He forgot turning the light off. 他忘记他已经关了灯了。(已做过关灯的动作) |
remember | remember to do：记得去做某事, remember doing：记得做过某事。 | Don't you remember seeing the man before?你不记得以前见过那个人吗? |
regret | regret to do：对将要做的事遗憾, regret doing：对做过的事遗憾、后悔。 | I don't regret telling her what I thought. |
cease | cease to do：长时间,甚至永远停做某事, cease doing：短时停止做某事,以后还会接着做。 | The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by. |
try | try to do：努力,企图做某事, try doing：试验,试着做某事。 | I tried gardening but didn't succeed. You must try to be more careful. |
go on | go on to do：做了一件事后,接着做另一件事, go on doing：继续做原来做的事。 | After he had finished his maths,he went on to do his physics. Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one. |
be interested | be interested to do对做某事感兴趣,想了解某事, interested in doing对某种想法感兴趣。 | I shall be interested to know what happens. 我很想知道发生了什么事。(想了解) |
mean | mean to do 打算、想,mean doing意味着。 | I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to. |
be afraid | be afraid to do：不敢,胆怯去做某事,是主观上的原因不去做,意为"怕",be afraid of doing：担心出现doing的状况、结果。doing 是客观上造成的,意为"生怕,恐怕"。 | She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake. 她生怕被蛇咬着,不敢在草丛中再走一步。
|
感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do表示动作的完整性,+doing 表示动作的进行性。 例如：I saw him work in the garden yesterday. 昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调"我看见了"这个事实) I saw him working in the garden yesterday.(强调"我见他正干活"这个动作)昨天我见他正在花园里干活。 | ||
典型例题：The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing B. to be playing C. play D. to play
答案：A. 本题强调其动作,正在河边玩,应此用see sb. doing sth句型。
Chapter 8. 分词
一、概念：
分词既有动词的特征,由有形容词和副词的特征。分词有现在分词和过去分词两种。现在分词有一般式和完成式,过去分词没有这种区别。及物动词的现在分词还有主动形式和被动形式的区别。分词常用的形式如表所示(以及物动词do 和不及物动词go为例)：
do | go | ||
主动 | 被动 | ||
现在分词 | doing | being done | going |
过去分词 | / | done | gone |
完成式 | having done | having been done | / |
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、分词作定语
不及物动词的现在分词作定语表达强调动作正在进行,过去分词强调完成；及物动词的现在分词作定语强调主动,过去分词强调被动。分词的完成式一般不作定语。分词作其他成分时,也是如此。分词作定语,单个的分词作定语一般前置；分词词组,个别分词如given, left等,修饰不定代词等的分词,作定语需后置。例如：
We can see the rising sun./ He is a retired worker./ This is the question given.
注：分词作定语相当于定语从句,如Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists. = Most of the people who wereinvited to the party were famous scientists.
2、分词作状语
①现在分词短语可以表示一个同时发生的次要的或伴随的动作：
Following Tom, we started to climb the mountain./Opening the drawer, he took out a box.
②现在分词短语还可以表示原因, 相当于一个原因状语从句：
Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her./Being unemployed, he hasn’t got much money.
③现在分词短语还可以表示时间, 相当于一个时间状语从句：
Hearing the news, they all jumped with joy./Having found a hotel, we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
Followed by some officials, Napoleon inspected his army.= With some officials following, Napoleon inspected his army.
注：选择现在分词还是过去分词,关键看主句的主语。如分词的动作是主句的主语发出,分词就选用现在分词(主动),反之就用过去分词(被动)。
3、连词+分词(短语)
有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚,可在分词前加连词。 连词有： when,while,if though,after, before, as. 但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个。例如：
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.
4、分词作补语
通常在感官动词和使役动词see,hear,catch,find,keep,have等之后。例如：I found my car missing. /I 'll have my watch repaired.
5、分词作表语
表示主语的状态等,很多动词的现在分词都可以作表语,如：exciting, interesting, encouraging, disappointing, confusing, touching, puzzling.。例如：She looked tired with cooking./ He remained standing beside the table.
6、分词作插入语
分词作插入语的结构是固定的,意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。例如：generally speaking 一般说来、strictly speaking 严格的说、judging from 从…判断、all things considered 从整体来看、taking all things into consideration 全面看来
Judging from his face, he must be ill./Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs.
7、分词的时态
1)一般式表示与主语动词同时发生。例如：
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy. /Arriving there, they found the boy dead.
The secretary worked late into the night, preparing a long speech for the president.
2)完成时表示先于主语动词发生。例如：
While walking in the garden,he hurt his leg. 在花园里散步时他伤了腿。
分词作时间状语,如果先与主动词的动作,且强调先后, 要用having done。
Having finished his homework, he went out. =As he had finished his homework, he went out.
8、分词的语态
1)通常,现在分词表示主动,过去分词表示被动。例如：
He is the man giving you the money. (= who gave you…)他就是给你钱的那个人。
He is the man stopped by the car. (= who was stopped by…)他就是那个被车拦住的人。
2)不及物动词的过去分词表示动作已经发生,如gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned等。
Chapter 9. 动名词
一、概念：
动名词是非限定动词的一种形式,由动词原形+ing构成。它既有动词的特征,又有名词的特征,是一种非谓语动词形式。动名词也有时态和语态的变化,如表所示(以及物动词write为例),不及物动词没有语态的变化。
时态/语态 | 主动 | 被动 |
一般式 | writing | being written |
完成式 | having written | having been written |
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、动名词作主语,例如：Fighting broke out between the South and the North.
2、动名词作宾语：
1)有些动词可以用动名词作宾语。例如：
admit 承认 | appreciate 感激 | avoid 避免 | complete完成 | consider认为 | delay 耽误 |
deny 否认 | detest 讨厌 | endure 忍受 | enjoy 喜欢 | escape 逃脱 | fancy 想象 |
finish 完成 | imagine 想象 | mind 介意 | miss 想念 | postpone推迟 | practice 训练 |
recall 回忆 | resent 讨厌 | resume 继续 | resist 抵抗 | risk 冒险 | suggest 建议 |
face 面对 | include 包括 | stand 忍受 | understand 理解 | forgive 宽恕 | keep 继续 |
例如：Would you mind turning down your radio a little, please? 你把收音机音量调小一点,好吗
The squirrel was lucky that it just missed being caught. 这松鼠幸运得很,刚逃避了被逮住的厄运。
2)有些结构后面可以用动名词作宾语或其他成分。例如：
admit to | prefer…to | be used to | lead to | devote oneself to | object to |
stick to | no good | no use | be fond of | look forward to | be proud of |
be busy | can't help | be tired of | be capable of | be afraid of | think of |
burst out | keep on | insist on | count on | set about | |
put off | be good at | take up | give up | be successful in |
3)作表语,对主语说明、解释。例如：Her job is washing, cleaning and taking care of the children.
4)作定语,一般表示所修饰名词事物的用途。例如：a writing desk=a desk for writing 写字台
有些动名词作定语,与所修饰的名词关系比较复杂。例如：boiling point=a temperature point at which something begins to boil
3、worth 的用法
worth, worthy, worthwhile都是形容词,意为"值得"。
1)worth： be worth + n.；be worth doing sth.；It’s worth while to do./ It ’s worth(someone’s)while doing；例如：
The question is not worth discussing again and again. 这问题不值得反复讨论。
2)worthy：be worthy of +n.当名词为抽象名词时表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
例如：The question is not worthy to be discussed again and again.
3)worthwhile：be worthwhile to do sth"值得做某事"
例如：It is worthwhile to ask him to join the club.值得邀请他加入俱乐部。
Chapter 10. 形容词和副词
一、概念：
形容词修饰名词,说明事物或人的性质或特征。通常,可将形容词分成性质形容词和叙述形容词两类,其位置不一定都放在名词前面。其中直接说明事物的性质或特征的形容词是性质形容词,它有级的变化,可以用程度副词修饰,在句中可作定语、表语和补语。例如：hot。叙述形容词只能作表语,所以又称为表语形容词。这类形容词没有级的变化,也不可用程度副词修饰。大多数以a开头的形容词都属于这一类。如：afraid,well,unwell,ill,faint,afraid,alike,alive,alone,asleep,awake 等。
例如：He is an ill man.(×)；The man is ill.(√)；
形容词作定语修饰名词时,要放在名词的前边。但是如果形容词修饰以-thing为字尾的词语时,要放在这些词之后。例如：something nice.
副词主要用来修饰动词,形容词,副词或其他结构。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、形容词与副词：
1)大部分形容词加-ly可构成副词。但 friendly,deadly,lovely,lonely,likely,lively,ugly,brotherly,仍为形容词。
2)有些以-ly结尾既为形容词,也为副词,如daily,weekly,monthly,yearly,early等。例如：
The Times is a weekly paper./ The Times is published weekly.
2、用形容词表示类别和整体：
1)某些形容词加上定冠词可以泛指一类人,与谓语动词的复数连接,如the dead,the living,the rich,the poor,the blind,the hungry等。例如：The poor are losing hope.
2) 有关国家和民族的形容词加上定冠词指这个民族的整体,与动词的复数连用,如the British,the English,the French,the Chinese等。例如：The English have wonderful sense of humor.
3、多个形容词修饰名词的顺序：
多个形容词修饰名词时,其顺序为：限定词→数词→描绘词→(大小,长短,形状,新旧,颜色)→出处→材料性质→类别→名词。例如：a small round table/ a tall gray building/ a dirty old brown shirt/an expensive Japanese sports car
4、副词的位置：①在动词之前。②在be动词、助动词之后。③多个助动词时,副词一般放在第一个助动词后。
注：①大多数方式副词位于句尾,但宾语过长,副词可以提前,以使句子平衡。例如：
We could see very clearly a strange light ahead of us.我们清楚地看到前面有奇怪的光。
②方式副词well,badly,hard等只放在句尾。例如：He speaks English well.
5、副词的排列顺序：
1)时间,地点副词,小单位的在前,大单位在后。
2)方式副词,短的在前,长的在后,并用and或but等连词连接。例如：Please write slowly and carefully.
3)多个不同副词排列：程度+地点+方式+时间副词。
注：①副词very可以修饰形容词,但不能修饰动词。
②副词enough要放在形容词的后面,形容词enough放在名词前后都可。例如：There is food enough for everyone to eat.
6、兼有两种形式的副词：
副词 | 意义 | 例句 |
close与closely | close意思是"近"；closely 意思是"仔细地" | He is sitting close to me. 他就坐在我边上。 Watch him closely. 盯着他。 |
late 与lately | late意思是"晚"；lately 意思是"最近" | You have come too late. 你来得太晚了。 What have you been doing lately? 近来好吗? |
deep与deeply | deep意思是"深",表示空间深度；deeply时常表示感情上的深度,"深深地"。 | He pushed the stick deep into the mud.他把棍子深深插进泥里。 Even father was deeply moved by the film.老爸也被电影深深打动了。 |
high与highly | high表示空间高度；highly表示程度,相当于much。 | The plane was flying high. 这架飞机飞得很高。 I think highly of your opinion. 你的看法很有道理。 |
wide与widely | wide表示空间宽度；widely意思是"广泛地","在许多地方"。 | He opened the door wide. 他把门开得大大的。 English is widely used in the world.英语在世界范围内广泛使用。 |
free与freely | free的意思是"免费"；freely 的意思是"无限制地"。 | You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like. You may speak freely; say what you like. |
7、形容词与副词的比较级：
大多数形容词(性质形容词)和副词有比较级和最高级的变化,即原级、比较级和最高级,用来表示事物的等级差别。原级即形容词的原形,比较级和最高级有规则变化和不规则变化两种。
1)规则变化：单音节词和少数双音节词,加词尾-er,-est来构成比较级和最高级。
构成法 | 原级 | 比较级 | 最高级 |
一般单音节词未尾加-er,-est | tall | taller | tallest |
以不发音的e结尾的单音词和少数以- le结尾的双音节词只加-r,-st | nice | nicer | nicest |
以一个辅音字母结尾的闭音节单音节词,双写结尾的辅音字母,再加-er,-est | big | bigger | biggest |
"以辅音字母+y"结尾的双音节词,改y为i,再加-er,-est | busy | busier | busiest |
少数以-er,-ow结尾的双音节词未尾加-er,-est | narrow | narrower | narrowest |
其他双音节词和多音节词,在前面加more,most来构成比较级和最高级 | important | more important | most important |
2) 不规则变化
原级 | 比较级 | 最高级 |
good | better | best |
well(健康的) |
worse |
worst |
bad | ||
ill(有病的) | ||
old | older/elder | oldest/eldest |
much/many | more | most |
little | less | least |
far | farther/further | farthest/furthest |
8、as +形容词或副词原级+ as：
1)在否定句或疑问句中可用so… as。例如：He cannot run so/as fast as you. 他没你跑得快。
2)当as… as 中间有名词时采用以下格式：as +形容词+ a +单数名词/ as + many/much +名词。例如：
This is as good an example as the other is. 这个例子和另外一个一样好。
I can carry as much paper as you can. 你能搬多少纸,我也能。
3)用表示倍数的词或其他程度副词做修饰语时,放在as的前面。例如：This room is twice as big as that one.
4)倍数+ as + adj. + as<=>倍数+ the … + of。例如：
This bridge is three times as long as that one. ＝This bridge is three times the length of that one.
9、比较级形容词或副词 + than,例如：They lights in your room are brighter than those in mine.你房间的那些灯比我房间里的亮。
注：①要避免重复使用比较级。②要避免将主语含在比较对象中。③要注意对应句型,遵循前后一致的原则。④要注意定冠词在比较级中的使用。例如：
China is larger than any country in Asia.(×)/China is larger than any other countries in Asia.(√)
Which is larger, Canada or Australia?/Which is the larger country, Canada or Australia?
10、可修饰比较级的词：①a bit, a little, rather, much, far, by far, many, a lot, lots, a great deal, any, still, even等。②还可以用表示倍数的词或度量名词作修饰语。③以上词(除by far)外,必须置于比较级形容词或副词的前面。
11、many, old 和 far
1)如果后接名词时,much more +不可数名词,many more +可数名词复数。
2) old有两种比较级和最高级形式：older/oldest 和elder/eldest。elder,eldest只用于兄弟姐妹的长幼关系。例如：
My elder brother is an engineer. 我哥哥是个工程师。
Mary is the eldest of the three sisters. 玛丽是三姐妹中最大的。
3) far有两种比较级,farther,further。一般father 表示距离,further表示进一步。例如：I have nothing further to say.
12、the+最高级+比较范围：
1)形容词最高级前通常必须用定冠词the,副词最高级前可不用。例如：The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.
形容词most前面没有the,不表示最高级的含义,只表示"非常"。例如：
It is a most important problem. =It is a very important problem. 这是个很重要的问题。
注：使用最高级要注意将主语包括在比较范围内。
2)下列词可修饰最高级,by far, far, much, mostly, almost。例如：This hat is nearly / almost the biggest.
注：① very可修饰最高级,但位置与much不同。例如：This is the very best./This is much the best.
②序数词通常只修饰最高级。例如：Africa is the second largest continent.
3)最高级的意义有时可以用比较级表示出来。例如：
Mike is the most intelligent in his class. 马克是班上最聪明的。
Mike is more intelligent than any other students in his class.
4) "否定词语+比较级","否定词语+ so… as"结构也可以表示最高级含义。例如：Nothing is so easy as this. =Nothing is easier than this. =This is the easiest thing.
13、和more有关的词组：
1)the more…the more…越……就越……。例如：The harder you work,the greater progress you'll make. 越努力,进步越大。
2)more B than A=less A than B与其说A不如说B。例如：
He is more lazy than slow at his work. = He is less slow than lazy at his work. 他工作时,与其说是反应慢不如说是懒。
3) no more… than… 与……一样……,不比……多。例如：
The officials could see no more than the Emperor. 官员们看到的和皇帝一样多。
no less… than…与……一样……。例如：He is no less diligent than you. 他和你一样勤勉。
4) more than不只是,非常。例如：She is more than kind to us all. 她对我们非常热心。
例如：The weather in China is different from that in America.
After the new technique was introduced,the factory produced twice as many tractors in 1988 as the year before.
Chapter 11. 代词
一、概念：
代词是代替名词的词, 大多数代词具有名词和形容词的功能。按其意义、特征及其在句中的作用分为：人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、反身代词、相互代词、疑问代词、不定代词和关系代词等。
1、人称代词是表示"我"、"你"、"他"、"她"、"它"、"我们"、"你们"、"他们"的词。人称代词有人称、数和格的变化,见下表：
数 | 单数 | 复数 | ||
格 | 主格 | 宾格 | 主格 | 宾格 |
第一人称 | I | me | we | us |
第二人称 | you | you | you | you |
第三人称 | he | him | they | them |
she | her | they | them | |
it | it | they | them | |
2、物主代词是表示所有关系的代词,也可叫做代词所有格。物主代词分形容性物主代词和名词性物主代词两种,其人物和数的变化见下表。
数 | 单数 | 复数 | ||||
人称 | 第一人称 | 第二人称 | 第三人称 | 第一人称 | 第二人称 | 第三人称 |
形容词性物主代词 | my | your | his/her/its | our | your | their |
名词性物主代词 | mine | yours | his/hers/its | ours | yours | theirs |
3、指示代词表示"那个"、"这个"、"这些"、"那些"等指示概念的代词。指示代词有this,that,these,those等。指示代词分单数(this / that)和复数(these / those)两种形式,既可作限定词又可做代词。例如：
单数 | 复数 | |
限定词 | This girl is Mary. | Those men are my teachers. |
代词 | This is Mary. | Those are my teachers. |
4、表示"我自己"、"你自己"、"他自己"、"我们自己"、"你们自己"和"他们自己"等的代词,叫做自身代词,也称为"反身代词"。
数 | 单数 | 复数 | ||||
人称 | 第一人称 | 第二人称 | 第三人称 | 第一人称 | 第二人称 | 第三人称 |
人称代词 | I | you | he/she/it | we | you | they |
反身代词 | myself | yourself | yourself/herself/himself | ourselves | yourselves | themselves |
另外：one的反身代词为oneself
5、表示相互关系的代词叫相互代词,表示句中动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的。只有each other 和one another两组,但在运用中,这两组词没什么大的区别。例如：
It is easy to see that the people of different cultures have always copied each other. 显而易见,不同文化的人总是相互借鉴的。
6、非指明代替任何特定名词的代词叫做不定代词。常见的不定代词有all , both, every, each, either, neither, more, little, few, much, many, another, other, some, any , one, no 以及some, something, anything, everything, somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, nothing , nobody, no one, none, everybody, everyone等。这些不定代词大都可以代替名词和形容词,在句中作主语、宾语、表语和定语,但none和由some,any,no等构成的复合不定代词只能作主语、宾语或表语；every和no只能作定语。
7、疑问代词有who,whom,whose,what和which等。在句子中用来构成特殊疑问句。疑问代词都可用作连接代词,引导名词性从句(主语从句、宾语从句和表语从句)。
指人： who, whom, whose
指物： what
既可指人又可指物： which
8、关系代词有who,whom,whose,that,which,as等,可用作引导从句的关联词。它们在定语从句中可作主语、表语、宾语、定语等；另一方面它们又代表主句中为定语从句所修饰的那个名词或代词(先行词)。例如：
He is the man whom you have been looking for. 他就是你要找的那个人。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、人称代词的用法
①人称代词的主格在句子中作主语或主语补语。例如：
John waited a while but eventually he went home. /John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.
注：在复合句中,如果主句和从句主语相同,代词主语要用在从句中,名词主语用在主句中。例如：
When he arrived, John went straight to the bank. 约翰一到就直接去银行了。
②人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语,但在口语中也能作主语补语,第一人称在省略句中,还可以作主语。例如：
I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
③人称代词还可作表语,作表语时用宾格。例如：---Whos is knocking at the door?---It’s me.
④人称代词在than之后与其他人或事物进行比较时,用主格和宾格都可以。如：He is older than me.=He is older than I am.
⑤人称代词有主格和宾格之分。通常主格作主语,宾格作宾语。
注：①在简短对话中,当人称代词单独使用或在not 后,多用宾语。②在表示比较的非正式的文体中,常用宾格代替主格。 但如果比较状语的谓语保留,则主语只能用主格。③在介词but,except 后,有时可用主格代替宾格。④在电话用语中常用主格。⑤在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。
注：①不定代词 anybody,everybody,nobody,anyone,someone,everyone,no one,及whoever和person在正式场合使用时,可用he, his, him代替。②动物名词的指代一般用it或they代替,有时也用he, she,带有亲切的感情色彩。③指代车或国家,船舶的名词,含感情色彩时常用she。
注：并列人称代词的排列顺序
①单数人称代词并列作主语时,其顺序为：第二人称→第三人称→第一人称,即you→he/she; it→ I。
②复数人称代词作主语时,其顺序为：第一人称→第二人称→第三人称,即we→you→they。
注：在下列情况中,第一人称放在前面
①在承认错误,承担责任时：It was I and John that made her angry. 是我和约翰惹她生气了。
②在长辈对晚辈,长官对下属说话时,如长官为第一人称,如：I and you try to finish it. 我和你去弄好它。
③并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时。
④当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
2、物主代词的用法
①物主代词既有表示所属的作用又有指代作用。例如：John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk.
注：物主代词有形容词性(my, your等)和名词性(mine, yours等)两种,形容词性的物主代词属于限定词。名词性的物主代词在用法上相当于省略了中心名词的--'s属格结构。
②形容词性物主代词的作用相当于形容词,可在句中作定语。例如：Our teacher is coming to see us.
③名词性物主代词的作用相当于名词,在句中可用作主语、宾语和表语。例如：
May I use your pen? Yours works better.(作主语)
--- Is this English-book yours? (作表语)--- No. Mine is in my bag.(作主语)
I love my motherland as much as you love yours.(作宾语)
注：双重所有格
物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置,修饰一个名词,而必须用双重所有格。公式为：a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。例如：a friend of mine, each brother of his.
3、指示代词的用法
①作主语：this和these一般用来指在时间或空间上较近的事物或人,that和those则指时间和空间上较远的事物或人,例如：
This is a pen and that is a pencil./We are busy these days./ In those days the workers had a hard time.
注：①有时that和those指前面讲到过的事物,this 和these则是指下面将要讲到的事物,例如：
What I want to say is this：pronunciation is very important in learning English.
②有时为了避免重复提到的名词,常可用that或those代替,例如：
Television sets made in Beijing are just as good as those made in Shanghai.
③this 在电话用语中代表自己,that 则代表对方。例如：Hello! This is Mary. Is that Jack speaking?
②作宾语,例如：I like this better than that./ I don't say no to that.
③作表语,例如：My point is this.
注：That和those可作定语从句的先行词,但this和 these不能,同时,在作先行词时,只有those可指人。
4、反身代词的用法
①作宾语,表示动作的承受者就是动作的发出者,主语和宾语指同一个人或一些人。如absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave+oneself。例如：Please help yourself to some fish.
注：有些动词后不跟反身代词,如：get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up等。
②作表语,如结构be oneself。例如：It doesn't matter．I'll be myself soon．
③作主语或宾语的同位语,表示亲自或本人。例如：The thing itself is not important.
注：反身代词本身不能单独作主语,但在and, or, nor连接的并列主语中,第二个主语可用反身代词,特别是myself 作主语。例如：Myself drove the car.(×)；Charles and myself saw it.(√)；
5、不定代词的用法
①除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词,也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。例如：I have no idea about it.
②all都,指三者以上。all的主谓一致：all的单复数由它所修饰或指代的名词的单复数决定,All goes well.一切进展得很好。
注：①all通常不与可数名词单数连用,但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用,如 all day,all night,all the year；但习惯上不说 all hour,all century。
②all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用。
现将几个常用的不定代词举例说明如下：
⑴some与any的区别
①some多用于肯定句,表示“一些,几个”作形容词时, 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。当做"某一"解时,与单数名词连用。(= a certain),例如：A certain (some) person has seen you break the rule.
②any多用于疑问句、条件句和否定句中,表示“一些,任何”用作形容词时, 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。当句中含有任何的意思时,any可用于肯定句。例如：If you have any questions, please ask me.
③any和some也可以作代词用,表示“一些”。any多用于疑问句或否定句中,some多用于肯定句中,在肯定疑问句中用some代替any。例如：If you have no money, I'll lend you some.
注：当否定的是整体中的部分时,some可用于否定句。例如：I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
注：与some, any结合的词如something, somebody, someone, anything, anyone, anybody在肯定句、否定句、疑问句、条件句中的用法,大致和some, any的用法相同。
⑵few, a few, little, a little在用法上的区别
①用作形容词：(a)few +可数名词, (a)little +不可数名词
含义 | ||
用法 | 表示肯定 | 表示否定 |
用于可数名词 | a few虽少,但有几个 | few不多,几乎没有 |
用于不可数名词 | a little,虽少,但有一点 | little不多,没有什么 |
②a little和little也可以用作副词,a little表示“有点,稍微”,little表示“很少”。例如：
Mary, go a little faster, please. (修饰副词比较级)/She slept very little last night.
⑶other, the other, another, others, the others
①other可以作形容词用,后面可以跟单数或复数名词,意思是“其他的、别的”。例如：I haven't any other books except this one.
②other也可以用作代词,与冠词the连用构成“the other”,表示两个人或物中的“另一个”。常与one搭配构成“one ..., the other ...”句型。例如：
He has two brothers. One is 10 years old , the other is 5 years old.
She held a ruler in one hand and an exercise-book in the other.
③other作代词用时,可以有复数“others”,泛指“另外的人或物”。常与some搭配构成“some ...., others ...”句型。
Some went to the cinema, others went swimming./This coat is too large. Show me some others, please.
④“the others”表示特指某范围内的“其他的人或物”。例如：We got home by 4 o'clock, but the others didn't get back until 8 o'clock.
⑤another可以作形容词用,修饰后面的名词,意为“另一个”,还可以跟代词one。例如：You can see another ship in the sea, can't you?
⑥another也可以作代词用,表示“另一个”。例如：I'm still hungry after I've had this cake. Please give me another.
⑷every与each的区别
each | 1)可单独使用2)可做代名词、形容词3)着重“个别” 4)用于两者或两者以上中的每一个人或物 |
every | 1)不可单独使用2)仅作形容词3)着重“全体”,毫无例外4)用于三者或三者以上每一个人或物5) 有反复重复的意思 |
例如：The teacher gave a toy to each child./ Each ball has a different colour.
当我们说each child, each student或each teacher时,我们想到的是一个人的情况。而当我们说every child和every student时,我们想到的是全体的情况,every的意思与all接近,表示他们都如此。
Every student loves the English teacher. = All students love the English teacher.
⑸all和both,neither和nor的用法
①all指三者以上或不可数的事物。谓语动词既可以用单数,也可以用作复数。在句中作主语、表语、宾语、同位语和定语。
②both都,指两者。both 与复数动词连用,但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。“of +代词(或名词)”连用时,名词需为复数。
③both,all 都可作同位语,其位置在行为动词前,be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省去,则位于助动词或情态动词之前。
④neither两者都不,neither作主语时,谓语动词用单数。作定语与单数名词连用,但neither… nor 用作并列连词,可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。
注：neither 与nor 的比较
①如前句是否定式从句,则主句用neither,而不用 nor。例如：If you don't do it,neither should I.
②如后连续有几个否定句式,则用nor,不用neither。例如：He can't sing,nor dance,nor skate.
⑹one,ones,that 和it
①one表示泛指,that和it 表示特指。that与所指名词为同类,但不是同一个,而it 与所指名词为同一个。
②ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前,则用some, any,而不用ones。
⑺anyone与any one,no one与none
①anyone和any one：anyone仅指人,any one既可指人,也可指物。
②no one和none：none 后跟of短语,既可指人又可指物,而no one只单独使用,只指人。none作主语,谓语动词用单,复数均可,而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。
6、相互代词的用法
①作动词宾语,例如：People should love one another. 人们应当彼此相爱。
②作介词宾语,例如：Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other.吠、鸡鸣、蛙儿对唱。
注：传统语法认为,相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other, 存在于两个以上人和物之间用one another。现代英语中,两组词交替使用的实例也很多。例如：
Usually these small groups were independent of each other. 这些小团体通常是相互独立的。
③作定语用时,相互代词用所有格形式,例如：The students corrected each other's / one another's mistakes in their homework.
7、疑问代词的用法
①疑问代词用于特殊疑问句中,一般都放在句首,并在句子中作为某一句子成分。例如：Who is going to come here tomorrow?
②疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前,没有性和数的变化,除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which, whose还可作限定词。例如：
疑问代词：What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion? 美国的领土扩张是朝哪个方向的?
限定词：What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States? 哪些事件使密西西比河以东的大部分土地归属于美国?
注：①无论是做疑问代词还是限定词,which 和 what 所指的范围不同。what所指的范围是无限的,而which则指在一定的范围内。例如：Which girls do you like best?你喜欢哪几个姑娘?What girls do you like best?你喜欢什么样的姑娘?
②Whom是who的宾格,在书面语中,它作动词宾语或介词宾语,在口语中作宾语时,可用who代替,但在介词后只能用whom。
③疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时,过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首,现代英语中,疑问代词在句首,介词在句末。例如：For what do most people live and work?(旧文体)What are you looking for?(现代英语)
④疑问代词还可引导名词性从句。例如：I can't make out what he is driving at. 我不知道他用意何在。
8、关系代词的用法
①关系代词用来引导定语从句。它代表先行词,同时在从句中作一定的句子成分,在句中可用作主语,表语,宾语,定语。在主句中,它们还代表着从句所修饰的那个名词或代词。例如：
The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin. 跟我讲话的姑娘是我表妹。
该句中whom既代表先行词the girl,又在从句中作介词to的宾语。
②关系代词有主格,宾格和属格之分,并有指人与指物之分。在限定性定语从句中,that 可指人也可指物,见表：
指人 | 指物 | 指人或指物 | |
主 格 | who | which | that |
宾 格 | whom | that | that |
属 格 | whose | of which/whose | of which/whose |
例如：This is the pencil whose point is broken. 这就是那枝折了尖的铅笔。(whose 指物,在限定性定语从句中作定语)
He came back for the book which he had forgotten.他回来取他丢下的书。(which指物,在限定性定语从句中作宾语,可以省略)
注：非限定性定语从句中,不能用that作关系代词。
③关系代词which的先行词可以是一个句子,例如：He said he saw me there, which was a lie.
注：关系代词在从句中作宾语时可以省略。另外,关系代词that在从句中作表语时也可省略,例如
I've forgotten much of the Latin I once knew. 我过去懂拉丁语,现在大都忘了。
He's changed. He's not the man he was. 他变化很大,已不是过去的他了。
Chapter .12名词
一、概念：
名词是表示人,事物,地点或抽象概念的名称的词,有专有名词和普通名词之分,还有可数名词与不可数名词之分。专有名词是某个(些)人,地方,机构等专有的名称,如Beijing,China等。普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词,如：book,sadness等。普通名词又可分为下面四类：
1)个体名词：表示某类人或东西中的个体,如：gun。
2)集体名词：表示若干个个体组成的集合体,如：family。
3)物质名词：表示无法分为个体的实物,如：air。
4)抽象名词：表示动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念,如：work。
个体名词和集体名词可以用数目来计算,称为可数名词,物质名词和抽象名词一般无法用数目计算,称为不可数名词。归纳一下,名词的分类可以下图表示：
名词 | 专有名词 |
不可数名词 | |
普通名词 | 物质名词 | ||
抽象名词 | |||
集体名词 | 可数名词 | ||
个体名词 | |||
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、名词复数的规则变化
构成方法 | 读音 | 例词 | |
一般情况 | 加 -s | 清辅音后读/s/ | map-maps |
浊辅音和元音后读 /z/ | bag-bags /car-cars | ||
以s, sh, ch, x等结尾 | 加 -es | 读 /iz/ | bus-buses/ watch-watches |
以ce, se, ze,等结尾 | 加 -s | 读 /iz/ | license-licenses |
以辅音字母+y结尾 | 变y 为i再加es | 读 /z/ | baby---babies |
2、其它名词复数的规则变化
构成方法 | 例词 | |
以y结尾的专有名词,或元音字母+y 结尾的名词 | 直接加s变复数 | The Henrys,monkeys,holidays |
以o 结尾的名词 | 加s | Photos,pianos,radios,zoos |
加es | Potatoes,tomatoes | |
加s加es均可 | zero---zeros / zeroes | |
以f或fe 结尾的名词 | 加s | Beliefs,roofs,safes,gulfs |
去f,fe 加ves | Halves,knives,leaves,wolves,wives,thieves | |
均可 | handkerchief： handkerchiefs / handkerchieves |
3、名词复数的不规则变化
1) child---children；foot---feet；tooth---teeth；mouse---mice；man---men；woman---women
注：由一个词加 man 或 woman构成的合成词,其复数形式也是 -men 和-women,如an Englishman,two Englishmen。但German不是合成词,故复数形式为Germans；Bowman是姓,其复数是the Bowmans。
2)单复同形,如deer,sheep,fish,Chinese,Japanese ,li,jin,yuan,two li,three mu,four jin等。但除人民币的元、角、分外,美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。如：a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters。
3)集体名词,以单数形式出现,但实为复数。例如：people,police,cattle等本身就是复数,不能说a people,a police,a cattle,但可以说a person,a policeman,a head of cattle。 the English,the British,the French,the Chinese,the Japanese,the Swiss等名词,表示国民总称时,作复数用。例如：The Chinese are industries and brave.中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。
4)以s结尾,仍为单数的名词,如：① maths,politics,physics等学科名词,一般是不可数名词,为单数。②news 为不可数名词。③the United States,the United Nations 应视为单数。④以复数形式出现的书名,剧名,报纸,杂志名,也可视为单数。
例如：The United Nations was organized in 1945. 联合国是1945年组建起来的。
"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book. 《一千零一夜》是一本非常有趣的故事书。
5)表示由两部分构成的东西,如：glasses(眼镜),trousers, clothes等,若表达具体数目,要借助数量词。如：pair(对,双); suit(套);
6)一些名词,其复数形式有时可表示特别意思,如：goods货物,waters水域,fishes(各种)鱼。
4、不可数名词量的表示
物质名词 | ①当物质名词转化为个体名词时为可数 | Cake is a kind of food.(不可数)；These cakes are sweet.(可数) |
②当物质名词表示该物质的种类时,可数。 | This factory produces steel.(不可数) We need various steels.(可数) | |
③当物质名词表示份数时,可数。 | Two teas, please.请来两杯茶。 | |
抽象名词表示具体的事例时也可数。 | four freedoms 四大自由,the four modernizations四个现代化 | |
物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量,如a glass of water 一杯水/ a piece of advice 一则建议。 | ||
5、定语名词的复数
名词作定语一般用单数,但也有以下例外。
1)用复数作定语。例如：sports meeting运动会；students reading-room学生阅览室；talks table谈判桌；the foreign languages department外语系。
2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时,其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。例如：men workers；women teachers；gentlemen officials。
3)有些原有s结尾的名词,作定语时,s保留。例如：goods train(货车),arms produce武器生产,customs papers海关文件,clothes brush衣刷。
4)数词+名词作定语时,这个名词一般保留单数形式。例如：two-dozen eggs两打鸡蛋,a ten-mile walk十英里路,two-hundred trees 两百棵树,a five-year plan一个五年计划。
6、不同国籍人的单复数
国籍 | 总称 | 单数 | 复数 | 国籍 | 总称 | 单数 | 复数 |
中国人 | the Chinese | a Chinese | two Chinese | 日本人 | the Japanese | a Japanese | two Japanese |
瑞士人 | the Swiss | a Swiss | two Swiss | 德国人 | the Germans | a German | two Germans |
澳大利亚人 | theAustralians | an Australian | twoAustralians | 美国人 | the Americans | an American | two Americans |
俄国人 | the Russians | a Russian | two Russians | 英国人 | the English | anEnglishman | twoEnglishmen |
意大利人 | the Italians | an Italian | two Italians | 加拿大人 | the Canadians | a Canadian | two Canadians |
希腊人 | the Greek | a Greek | two Greeks | 瑞典人 | the Swedish | a Swede | two Swedes |
法国人 | the French | a Frenchman | twoFrenchmen | 印度人 | the Indians | an Indian | two Indians |
7、名词的格
英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系,带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格,名词所有格的规则如下：
1)单数名词词尾加"'s",复数名词词尾没有s,也要加"'s",如the boy's bag,men's room。
2若名词已有复数词尾-s ,只加" ' ",如：the workers' struggle。
3)凡不能加"'s"的名词,都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系,如：the title of the song。
4)在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时,名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词,如：the barber's。
5)如果两个名词并列,并且分别有's,则表示"分别有"；只有一个's,则表示'共有'。例如：John's and Mary's rooms(两间),John and Mary's room(一间)
6)复合名词或短语,'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。例如：a month or two's absence。
Chapter 13. 数词
一、概念：
数词分为基数词和序数词,表示数目多少的数词叫基数词,表示顺序的数词叫序数词。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、基数词
1)基数词一般可写成如345或three hundred and forty-five。
2)基数词一般是单数形式,但遇下列情况,常用复数：①与of 短语连用,表示概数,不能与具体数目连用,如scores of people指许多人；②在一些表示"一排"或"一组"的词组里。例如：They arrived in twos and threes.他们三三两两的到了。③表示"几十岁"。④表示"年代",用 in +the +数词复数。⑤在乘法运算的一种表示法里,如Three fives is(are)fifteen。
2、序数词
序数词的缩写形式：如first---1st,second---2nd,thirty-first---31st等。
3、数词的用法
1)倍数表示法
①主语+谓语+倍数(或分数)+ as + adj. + as。例如：I have three times as many as you.
②主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ the size (amount,length…) of…。例如：The earth is 49 times the size of the moon.
③主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ 形容词(副词)比较级+ than…。例如：The grain output is 8 percent higher this year than that of last year.
④还可以用by+倍数,表示增加多少倍。例如：The production of grain has been increased by four times this year.
2)分数表示法的构成：基数词代表分子,序数词代表分母。分子大于1时,分子的序数词用单数,分母序数词用复数。
例如：1/3,one-third；3/37,three and three-sevenths.
Chapter 14. 冠词
一、概念：
冠词是一个虚词, 本身不能单独使用,也没有词义,它置于名词之前,限定名词的意义。冠词可分为定冠词,不定冠词和零冠词三类。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、不定冠词的用法
不定冠词a(an)与数词one同源,是"一个"的意思。a用于辅音音素前,一般读作[e],而an则用于元音音素前,一般读做[en]。
⑴表示"一个",意为one；指某人或某物,意为a certain。例如：A Mr. Ling is waiting for you.有位姓凌的先生在等你。
⑵代表一类人或物。例如：A knife is a tool for cutting with.刀是切割的工具。
⑶组成词组或成语,如a little / a few / a lot / a type of / a pile / a great many / many a / as a rule / in a hurry / in a minute / in a word / in a short while / after a while / have a cold / have a try /keep an eye on / all of a sudden等。
2、定冠词的用法
定冠词the与指示代词this,that同源,有"那(这)个"的意思,但意义较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西。
⑴特指双方都明白的人或物。例如：Take the medicine.把药吃了。
⑵上文提到过的人或事。例如：He bought a house.I've been to the house.他买了幢房子。我去过那幢房子。
⑶指世上独一物二的事物,如the sun, the sky, the moon, the earth等。
⑷与单数名词连用表示一类事物,如the dollar 美元; the fox 狐狸；或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人：the rich 富人; the living 生者。与复数名词连用,指整个群体。例如：
They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师)
They are teachers of this school. (指部分教师)
⑸用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词only,very,same等前面。例如：
Where do you live? I live on the second floor.你住在哪?我住在二层。
That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西。
⑹表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前。例如：She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂。
⑺用在某些由普通名词构成的国家名称、机关团体、阶级、等专有名词前。例如：the People's Republic of China
⑻用在表示乐器的名词之前。例如：She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴。
⑼用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人。例如：the Greens格林一家人(或格林夫妇)
⑽用在惯用语中。例如：in the day, in the morning (afternoon,evening),the day after tomorrow,the day before yesterday, the next morning,in the sky (water,field,country),in the dark,in the rain,in the distance,in the middle (of),in the end,on the whole,by the way,go to the theatre
3、零冠词的用法
⑴国名,人名前通常不用定冠词：England,Mary。
⑵泛指的复数名词,表示一类人或事物时,可不用定冠词。例如：They are teachers. 他们是教师。
⑶抽象名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词。例如：Failure is the mother of success.失败乃成功之母。
⑷物质名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词,当表示特定的意思时,需要加定冠词。例如：Man cannot live without water.
⑸在季节、月份、节日、 假日、日期、星期等表示时间的名词之前,不加冠词。例如：We go to school from Monday to Friday.
⑹在称呼或表示官衔,职位的名词前不加冠词。例如：The guards took the American to General Lee.
⑺在三餐、球类运动和娱乐运动的名称前,不加冠词,如have breakfast,play chess。
⑻当两个或两个以上名词并用时,常省去冠词。例如：I can't write without pen or pencil.没有钢笔和铅笔,我就写不了字。
⑼当by与火车等交通工具连用,表示一种方式时,中间无冠词,如by bus,by train。
⑽有些个体名词不用冠词,如school,college,prison,market,hospital,bed,table,class,town,church,court等个体名词,直接置于介词后,表示该名词的深层含义。例如：go to hospital去医院看病；go to the hospital去医院(并不是去看病,而是有其他目的)
⑾不用冠词的序数词：①序数词前有物主代词时。②序数词作副词。例如：He came first in the race. 他跑步得了第一。③在固定词组中,如at(the)first, first of all, from first to last等。
注：在有些词组中,有冠词和无冠词意思不同,请注意区别：in front of在…前面和in the front of在…范围内的前部；in hospital (生病)住院和 in the hospital 在医院里。
4、冠词与形容词+名词结构
⑴两个形容词都有冠词,表示两个不同的人或物。例如：
He raises a black and a white cat.他养了一只黑猫和一只白猫。
The black and the white cats are hers. 这只黑猫和白猫都是他的。
⑵如后一个形容词无冠词,则指一人或一物。例如：He raises a black and white cat. 他养了一只花猫。
5、冠词位置
⑴不定冠词位置：不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。
①位于such,what,many,half等形容词之后。例如：I have never seen such an animal. 我从来没见过这样的动物。
②当名词前的形容词被副词as, so, too, how, however, enough修饰时,不定冠词应放在形容词之后。例如：
It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent. So short a time .Too long a distance.
③quite,rather与单数名词连用,冠词放在其后。但当rather,quite 前仍有形容词,不定冠词放其前后均可,如：rather a cold day/a rather cold day。
④在as,though 引导的让步状语从句中,当表语为形容词修饰的名词时,不定冠词放形容词后。例如：
Brave a man though he is,he trembles at the sight of snakes. 他尽管勇敢,可见到蛇还是发抖。
⑵定冠词位置
定冠词通常位于名词或名词修饰语前,但放在all, both,double,half,twice,three times等词之后,名词之前。例如：
All the students in the class went out. 班里的所有学生都出去了。
Chapter 15. 介词
一、概念：
介词表示它后面的名词或相当于名词的其他结构与句中其他成分的关系。
二、相关知识点精讲：
⑴表示地点位置的介词
①at ,in, on, to
介词 | at | in | on | to |
用法 | (1)表示在小地方; (2)表示“在……附近,旁边” | (1)表示 在大地方; (2)表示“在…范围之内”。 | 表示毗邻,接壤
| 表示在……范围外,不强调是否接壤 |
例句 | He arrived at the station at ten. | Jiangsu lies in the east of China. | Russia lies on the north of China. | Fujian is to the south of Jiangsu Province. |
②above, over, on在……上
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
above | 指在……上方,不强调是否垂直,与 below相对； | The bird is flying above my head. |
over | 指垂直的上方,与under相对,但over与物体有一定的空间,不直接接触。 | There is a bridge over the river. |
on | 表示某物体上面并与之接触。 | He put his watch on the desk. |
③below, under在……下面
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
under | 表示在…正下方 | There is a cat under the table. |
below | 表示在……下,不一定在正下方 | Please write your name below the line. |
⑵表示时间的介词
①in , on,at在……时
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
in | 表示较长时间,如世纪、朝代、时代、年、季节、月及一般(非特指)的早、中、晚等。 | in the 20th century, in the 1950s, in 1989, in summer, in January, in the morning, in the night, in one’s life , in one’s thirties |
on | 表示具体某一天及其早、中、晚。 | on May 1st, on Monday, on New Year’s Day, on a cold night in January, on a fine morning, on Sunday afternoon |
at | 表示某一时刻或较短暂的时间,或泛指圣诞节,复活节等。 | at 3：20, at this time of year, at the beginning of, at the end of …, at the age of …, at Christmas, at night, at noon, at this moment |
②in, after 在……之后
介词短语 | 用法 | 例句 |
“in +段时间” | 表示将来的一段时间以后； | My mother will come back in three or four days. |
“after+段时间” | 表示过去的一段时间以后； | He arrived after five months. |
“after+将来点时间” | 表示将来的某一时刻以后。 | She will appear after five o’clock this afternoon. |
③from, since自从……
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
from | 仅说明什么时候开始,不说明某动作或情况持续多久； | He studied the piano from the age of three. |
since | 表示某动作或情况持续至说话时刻,通常与完成时连用。 | They have lived here since 1978. |
④after, behind在……之后
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
after | 主要用于表示时间； | We shall leave after lunch. |
behind | 主要用于表示位置。 | Lucy is hiding behind an old house. |
⑶表运动方向的介词：across, through通过,穿过
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
across | 表示横过,即从物体表面通过,与on有关； | She swam across the river. |
through | 穿过,即从物体内部穿过,与in有关。 | He walked through the forest. |
⑷表示“在……之间”的介词：between, among
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
between | 指在两个人或两个事物之间； | There is a football match between Class One and Class Two on the playground. |
among | 指在三个或三个以上的人或事物之间。 | The teacher is standing among the students. |
⑸表示其他意义的介词
①on ,about关于
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
on | 表示这本书,这篇文章或演说是严肃的,或学术性的,可供专门研究这一问题的人阅读； | There will be a lecture on economics today. |
about | 表示内容较为普通,不那么正式。 | He told me a lot about his life in the summer vocation. |
②by, with, in 表示方法、手段、工具
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
by | 以……方法、手段或泛指某种交通工具； | He makes a living by selling newspapers. |
with | 表示用 …工具、手段,一般接具体的工具和手段； | He broke the window with a stone. |
in | 表示用…方式,用…语言(语调、笔墨、颜色)等； | The foreigner spoke to us in English. |
③except, besides除了
介词 | 用法 | 例句 |
except | 除……之外,不包括在内； | Except Mr. Wang, we went to see the film. (王先生没去) |
besides | 除……之外,包括在内。 | Besides Mr. Wang, we also went to see the film. (王先生也去了) |
Chapter .16 连词
一、概念：
连词不能独立担任句子成分,只起连接词与词、短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类：并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等。
二、相关知识点精讲：
⑴表示并列关系的连词有：and, both…and…, not only… but also…和neither…nor…等。
①and和,并且：表示“和”、“并且”的意思,用来连接对等关系的字和字,片语和片语,句子和句子。祁使句后连接and,有条件句作用,此时and=if you…,you’ll… ,例如：
Go straight on, and you’ll see the library.=If you go straight on, you will see the library.
②both…and…既…也…,(两者)都…：both…and…构成的词组作主语时,谓语动词用复数。否定句中表示部分否定。
Both Jim and Kate are from England.
You can’t speak both German and English.(部分否定)
③neither…nor…既不…也不…：连接两个并列主语时,谓语动词靠近哪个主语就与哪个主语保持 “人称”和 “数”的一致,即就近原则。
Neither I nor he has seen the play before.
④not only…but also…不但…而且…：连接两个主语后的谓语动词也遵循就近原则。关联两个分句时,一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。例如：
Not only the mother but also the children are ill.
Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.他不但喜欢读小说,甚至还会写。
⑵表示转折关系的连词有：but, however, yet, still,while等。
Mary was a nice girl, but she had one shortcoming./Tom got up early, yet he failed to catch the train.
He was very tired, still he kept on walking./Your composition is fairly good, however, there is still some room for improvement.
Jane is hard working ,while her sister is quite lazy.
注：not…but… 意思为"不是…而是…",后面的用词要遵循一致原则。例如：
They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being. 这些不是动物的骨头,而是人的。
⑶表示选择关系的并列连词有：or, either…or…,whether…or…等。
①or或、否则：表示 “或” 的意思,使用于两者之中选择一个的时候。祁使句后连接or ,表“如果…,否则…”,有转折的意思,此时 or =if you don’t …,you’ll …。例如：
Hurry up, or you’ll be late.=If you don’t hurry up, you’ll be late.
②either…or… 或者…或者…; 不是…就是…；要么…要么…：连接两个并列主语时,谓语动词靠近哪个主语就与哪个主语保持 “人称”和 “数”的一致,即就近原则。由either…or…引导的否定句是完全否定。
Either you or I am right.
She isn’t either a student or a teacher.
③whether…or…不管…还是…,例如：She is always cheerful, whether at home or at school.
⑷表示因果关系的并列连词有：for(因为),so(所以),例如：He is not at school today, for he has a bad cold.
⑸引导时间状语从句的从属连词有：before, after, when, while, as, till, until, since, as soon as等。
After they had planted their crops, they took a rest.
We have learned six lessons since he began to teach us.
As soon as he gets to Beijing, he’ll call me.
① when, while, as都表示“当……时”,when从句谓语动词既可以是瞬间动词也可以是延续性动词,可用于主从句动作同时发生或从句动作先于主句动作发生。while从句谓语动词只能是延续性动词,侧重主从句动作同时发生。as引导一个持续性动作,多用于主从句动作同时发生,强调“一边……一边”。例如：
When I came in, my father was cooking.
I came in when/while my father was cooking.
He sang as he walked.
②until用法：当主句谓语动词是延续性动词时,主从句都用肯定式,译为“直到……为止”；当主句谓语动词是瞬间动词时,主句用否定式,从句用肯定式,即not…..until, 译为“直到……才”。例如：
Mr. Green waited until his children came back.(格林先生一直等到他的孩子们回来)
Mr. Green didn’t go to bed until his children came back. (格林先生直到他的孩子们回来才睡觉)
⑹引导条件状语从句的从属连词有：if(如果), unless(除非,如果……不)等。例如：
If you don’t go soon, you’ll be late.=Unless you go soon, you’ll be late.
⑺引导原因状语从句的从属连词有：because, as, since, therefore等。
because“因为”语气最强,回答why提问时只能用because,其引导的从句可放在句首或句末；as“由于”、since“既然”语气不如because强,引导的从句常置于句首；for是并列连词,语气最弱,对前面分句加以解释或补充说明,其引导的分句常置于句末且用逗号隔开。例如：
I think, therefore I exist. 我思故我在。
As it was raining, we went there by bus./Since everybody is here, let’s begin./It must have rained last night, for the ground is wet.
注：because与 so不能同时使用。
⑻引导让步状语从句的从属连词有：although/though(虽然,尽管), even though/if (即使)。例如：
Although/ Though it is a very young country, it is very rich.
Even if/ though you were here yesterday, you couldn’t help him.
注：although/though 引导的从句不能与but连用,但可与yet, still连用。
⑼引导目的状语从句的从属连词有：so that,so as to,in order to和in order that(以便,为了)等。
The teacher spoke loudly so that /in order that we could hear him clearly.
⑽引导结果状语从句的从属连词有：so that(结果是)和so/such…that…(如此…以至于)等。例如：
It was very cold, so that the water in the bowl froze./It is such a heavy box that nobody can move it.
⑾引导比较状语从句的从属连词有：as…as…(与……一样),not as/so… as…(不及,赶不上),和than(比)等。
I know you better than she does./He works as carefully as she./I can’t run as/so fast as you.
⑿引导名词性从句的从属连词有：that和if/whether(是否)等。例如：
We know that the earth goes around the sun.(宾语从句)/I wonder if he has received my e-mail. (宾语从句)
Whether he’ll go there hasn’t been decided.(主语从句)
注：在时间状语从句和条件状语从句中,如果主句是将来时,从句要用一般现在时。例如：
I’ll go on with the work when I come back tomorrow.
注：so与such的比较
such 是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so是副词,只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many,few,much,little连用,形成固定搭配。
用法 | ||||
so | so + adj. | so + adj. + a(n) + n. | so + adj. + n. (pl.) | so + adj. + n. (不可数) |
such | such + a(n) + n. | such + n. (pl.) | such +n. (pl.) | such +n.(不可数) |
注：so many 已成固定搭配,a lot of 虽相当于 many,但 a lot of 为名词性的,只能用such搭配。so…that与such…that之间的转换即为 so与such之间的转换。
附：阅读中需熟练掌握的连接词
熟练掌握以下连接词与连接语,就能充分把握住作者的意图和考题的出题思路,所以希望考生能对之要牢记在心。了解了这些连接词与连接语的不同功能后,相信你一定会在阅读理解上有所收获。一般把连接词与连接语分为以下三类：
⑴表明事件发生的时间顺序：then, first, at once, next,after that, previously, while, when, the following day, etc.
⑵表明文章的组织结构：
1)Listing： firstly, in the first place,secondly, thirdly, my next point is,last/finally, etc.
2)Illustrating： for example/ for instance, to illustrate, an example/ instance of this is,let’s take….., take…. for example, etc.
3)Re-stating： in other words, that is to say,to put it another way, let me put it this way,or rather, namely, etc.
4)Referring： in this respect, in that connection, as we said, apart from this, etc.
5)Resuming： to resume, to return to the previous point, getting back to the argument,etc.
6)Summarizing： to sum up, in short, it amounts to this, what I have been saying is this, etc.
7)Emphasizing： it is worth noting, I would like to direct your attention to, let us consider, we must now turn to, I shall begin by,etc.
⑶表明作者的观点、态度
1)Introducing( or emphasizing) further evidence： moreover, furthermore, in addition,what’s more, as well, etc.
2)Cause： because (of), since, owing to, on account of, due to, as a result of, etc.
3)Effect： as a result, hence, therefore,consequently, thus, so, etc.
4)Contrasting： in / by contrast, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless,whereas, while, yet, however, but, etc.
5)Comparison： in like manner, likewise, in the same way, similarly, in comparison with, etc.
6)Purpose： to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, in order to, so that, etc.
7)Intensification： indeed, in fact, in any event / case, at no time, to tell the truth, etc
Chapter 17. 构词法
一、概念：
英语的构词法主要有：合成法,转化法,派生法,混成法,截短法和词首字母缩略法。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、转化法
英语中,有的名词可作动词,有的形容词可作副词或动词,这种把一种词性用作另一种词性而词形不变的方法叫作转化法。
⑴动词转化为名词
很多动词可以转化为名词,意思没有多大的变化(如下①)；有时意思有一定变化(如下②)；有的与一个动词和不定冠词构成短语,表示一个动作(如下③)。例如：
①Let's go out for a walk.我们到外面去散散步吧。 ②He is a man of strong build.他是一个体格健壮的汉子。
③Let's have a swim.咱们游泳吧。
⑵名词转化为动词
很多表示物件(如下①)、身体部位(如下②)、某类人(如下③)的名词可以用作动词来表示动作,某些抽象名词(如下④)也可作动词。例如：
①Did you book a seat on the plane?你订好飞机座位了吗? ②Please hand me the book.请把那本书递给我。
③She nursed her husband back to health.她看护丈夫,使他恢复了健康。 ④We lunched together.我们在一起吃了午餐。
⑶形容词转化为动词
有少数形容词可以转化为动词。例如：We will try our best to better our living conditions.我们要尽力改善我们的生活状况。
⑷副词转化为动词
有少数副词可以转化为动词。例如：Murder will out.(谚语)恶事终必将败露。
⑸形容词转化为名词
表示颜色的形容词常可转化为名词(如下①)；某些形容词如old, young, poor, rich, wounded, injured等与the连用,表示一类人,作主语时,谓语用复数(如下②)。例如：
①You should be dressed in black at the funeral.你在葬礼中该穿黑色衣服。
②The old in our village are living a happy life.我们村的老年人过着幸福的生活。
2、派生法
在词根前面加前缀或在词根后面加后缀构成一个与原单词意义相近或截然相反的新词叫作派生法。
⑴前缀：除少数前缀外,前缀一般改变单词的意义,不改变词性；后缀一般改变词类,而不引起词义的变化。
①表示否定意义的前缀常用的有dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, mis-, non-, un-等,在单词的前面加这类前缀常构成与该词意义相反的新词。例如：appear出现→disappear消失；correct正确的→incorrect不正确的；lead带领→mislead领错；stop停下→non-stop不停
②表示其他意义的前缀常用的有a-(多构成表语形容词), anti- (反对；抵抗), auto- (自动), co- (共同), en- (使), inter- (互相), re- (再；又), sub- (下面的；次；小), tele- (强调距离)等。例如：alone单独的,antigas防毒气的,autochart自动图表,cooperate合作,enjoy使高兴,internet互联网,reuse再用,subway地铁,telephone电话；
⑵后缀：英语单词不仅可以通过加前缀构成新词,也可加后缀构成新词。后缀通常会改变单词的词性,构成意义相近的其他词性；少数后缀还会改变词义,变为与原来词义相反的新词。
①构成名词的后缀常用的有-ence,-(e)r/ -or (从事某事的人),-ese (某地人),-ess (雌性),-ful (一……),-ian (精通……的人),-ist (专业人员),-ment (性质；状态),-ness (性质；状态),-tion(动作；过程)等。例如：
differ不同于→difference区别；write写→writer作家；Japan日本→Japanese日本人；act表演→actress女演员
mouth口→mouthful一口；music音乐→musician音乐家
②构成动词的后缀常用的有-(e)n (多用于形容词之后),-fy (使……化),-ize (使……成为)。例如：
wide→widen加宽；beauty→beautify美化；pure→purify提纯；real→realize意识到；organ→organize组织
③构成形容词的后缀常用的有-al,-able (有能力的),-(a)n(某国人的),-en (多用于表示材料的名词后),-ern (方向的),-ese(某国人的),-ful,-(ic)al,-ish,-ive,-less (表示否定),-like (像……的),-ly,-ous,-some,-y (表示天气)等。例如：
nature自然→natural自然的；reason道理→reasonable有道理的；America美国→American美国的
China中国→Chinese中国人的；gold金子→golden金的；east东→eastern东方的；
child孩子→childish孩子气的；snow雪→snowy雪的
④构成副词的常用后缀有-ly (主要用于形容词之后表示方式或程度),-ward(s) (主要用于表示方位的词之后表示方向)。例如：
angry生气的→angrily生气地；to到→towards朝……,向……；east东方→eastward向东
⑤构成数词的后缀有-teen (十几),-ty (几十),-th (构成序数词)。例如：
six六→sixteen十六→sixteenth第十六；four四→forty四十→fortieth第四十
3、合成法
⑴合成名词：参见构成方式例词
方式 | 名词＋名词 | 名词＋动词 | 名词＋动名词 | 名词＋及物动词＋er／or | 名词＋介词＋名词 | 代词＋名词 |
举例 | weekend周末 | daybreak黎明 | handwriting书法 | pain-killer止痛药 | editor-in-chief总编辑 | she-wolf母狼 |
方式 | 动词＋名词 | 动名词＋名词 | 现在分词＋名词 | 形容词＋名词 | 副词＋动词 | 介词＋名词 |
举例 | typewriter打字机 | reading-room阅览室 | flying-fish飞鱼 | gentleman绅士 | outbreak爆发 | afternoon下午 |
⑵合成形容词：参见构成方式例词
方式 | 名词＋形容词 | 名词＋现在分词 | 名词＋to＋名词 | 名词＋过去分词 | 数词＋名词 | 数词＋名词＋形容词 |
举例 | snow-white 雪白的 | English-speaking讲英语的 | face-to-face 面对面的 | man-made 人造的 | one-way 单行的 | two-year-old 两岁的 |
方式 | 数词＋名词＋ed | 动词＋副词 | 形容词＋名词 | 形容词＋名词＋ed | 形容词＋形容词 | 形容词＋现在分词 |
举例 | five-storeyed 五层的 | see-through 透明的 | high-class 高级的 | noble-minded 高尚的 | light-blue 浅蓝色的 | good-looking 相貌好看的 |
方式 | 副词＋形容词 | 副词＋现在分词 | 副词＋过去分词 | 副词＋名词 | 介词＋名词 | |
举例 | ever-green 常青的 | hard-working 勤劳的 | well-known 著名的 | fast-food专门提供快餐服务的 | downhill下坡的 | |
⑶合成动词：参见构成方式例词
方式 | 名词＋动词 | 形容词＋动词 | 副词＋动词 |
举例 | sleep-walk梦游 | white-wash粉刷 | overthrow推翻 |
⑷合成副词：参见构成方式例词
方式 | 形容词＋名词 | 形容词＋副词 | 副词＋副词 | 介词＋名词 | 介词＋副词 |
举例 | hotfoot匆忙地 | everywhere到处 | however尽管如此 | beforehand事先 | forever永远 |
⑸合成代词：参见构成方式例词
方式 | 代词宾格＋self | 物主代词＋self | 形容词＋名词 |
举例 | herself她自己 | myself我自己 | anything任何东西 |
⑹合成介词：参见构成方式例词
方式 | 副词＋名词 | 介词＋副词 | 副词＋介词 |
举例 | inside在……里面 | within在……之内 | into进入 |
4、截短法(缩略法)
截短法,即将单词缩写,词义和词性保持不变,主要有截头、去尾、截头去尾等形式。
⑴截头：telephone→phone；aeroplane→plane；omnibus→bus
⑵去尾：mathematics→maths；co-operate→co-op；examination→exam；kilogram→kilo；laboratory→lab；taxicab→taxi
⑶截头去尾：influenza→flu；refrigerator→fridge；prescription→script
5、混合法(混成法)
混合法,即将两个词混合或各取一部分紧缩而成一个新词。后半部分表示主体；前半部分表示属性。例如：
news broadcast→newscast新闻广播；television broadcast→telecast电视播送；smoke and fog→smog烟雾
helicopter airport→heliport直升飞机场
6、首尾字母缩略法
首尾字母缩略法,即用单词首尾字母组成一个新词。读音主要有两种形式,即各字母分别读音；作为一个单词读音。例如：
very important person→VIP (读字母音)要人；television→TV (读字母音)电视；
Testing of English as a Foreign Language→TOEFL托福
第二部分 句法
Chapter 18. 名词性从句
一、概念：
在句中起名词作用的句子称名词性从句。名词性从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等,因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能,名词性从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
1、引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类：
连接词：that, whether ,if (不充当从句的任何成分)
连接代词：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which
连接副词：when, where, how, why
2、不可省略的连词：①介词后的连词②引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。例如：
That she was chosen made us very happy. 她被选上了,我们很高兴。
We heard the news that our team had won. 我们听到消息说我们队赢了。
注：比较：whether与if
均为"是否"的意思。但在下列情况下,whether不能被if 取代：①whether引导主语从句并在句首②引导表语从句③whether从句作介词宾语④从句后有"or not"
大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末,用it充当形式主语。例如：
It is not important who will go. 谁去,这不重要。
It is still unknown which team will win the match. 到底谁赢呢,形势尚不明朗。
3、名词性that-从句
①由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。That只起连接主句和从句的作用,在从句中不担任任何成分,本身也没有词义。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语。例如：
主语：That he is still alive is sheer luck. 他还活着全靠运气。
宾语：John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday. 约翰说他星期三要到伦敦去。
表语：The fact is that he has not been seen recently. 事实是近来谁也没有见过他。
同位语：The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office.
形容词宾语：I am glad that you are satisfied with your job. 你对工作满意我感到很高兴。
②That-从句作主语通常用it作先行词,而将that-从句置于句末。例如：
It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure. 很清楚,整个计划注定要失败。
It's a pity that you should have to leave. 你非走不可真是件憾事。
用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
搭配关系 | 举例 |
It + be +形容词+ that-从句 | It is necessary that…；It is important that…；It is obvious that… |
It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句 | It is believed that…；It is known to all that…；It has been decided that… |
It + be +名词+ that-从句 | It is common knowledge that…；It is a surprise that…；It is a fact that… |
It +不及物动词+ that-分句 | It appears that…；It happens that…；It occurred to me that… |
4、名词性wh-从句
①由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。Wh-词包括who, whom,. whose, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever等连接代词和where, when, how, why等连接副词。Wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外,还可充当介词宾语、宾语补语和间接宾语等。例如：
主语：How the book will sell depends on its author.书销售如何取决于作者本人。
直接宾语：In one's own home one can do what one likes.在自己家里可以随心所欲。
间接宾语：The club will give whoever wins a prize.获胜者俱乐部将颁奖。
表语：My question is who will take over president of the Foundation.我的问题是谁将接任该基金会主席职位。
宾语补足语：She will name him whatever she wants to. 她高兴给他起什么名字就取什么名字。
同位语：I have no idea when he will return.我不知道他什么时候回来。
形容词宾语：I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.我尚不能肯定她为什么拒绝他们的邀请。
介词宾语：That depends on where we shall go. 那取决于我们去哪儿。
②Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语,而将wh-从句置于句末。例如：
It is not yet decided who will do that job.还没决定谁做这项工作。
It remains unknown when they are going to get married.他们何时结婚依然不明。
5、if, whether引导的名词从句
①yes-no型疑问从句
从属连词if, whether引导的名词从句是由一般疑问句或选择疑问转化而来的,因此也分别被称为yes-no型疑问句从句和选择型疑问从句,其功能和wh-从句的功能相同。例如：
主语：Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved. 这一计划是否可行还有等证实。
宾语：Let us know whether / if you can finish the article before Friday. 请让我们知道你是否能在星期五以前把文章写完。
表语：The point is whether we should lend him the money. 问题在于我们是否应该借钱给他。
同位语：They are investigating the question whether the man is trustworthy.他们调查他是否值得信赖。
形容词宾语： She's doubtful whether we shall be able to come. 她怀疑我们是否能够前来。
介词宾语： I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness. 我担心他是否能度过疾病的危险期。
②选择性疑问从句
选择性疑问从句由关联词if/whether…or或whethe…or not构成。例如：
Please tell me whether / if they are Swedish or Danish. 请告诉我他们是瑞典人还是丹麦人。
I don't care whether you like the plan or not. 我不在乎你是否喜欢该计划。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、主语从句：主语从句在整个句子中作主语。
⑴不同于其它的连词,它不充当句子的成分,只是单纯的连接词,通常不可以省略。分句置于句首时,that绝对不可以省略。例如：
That the driver could not control his war was obvious./It was obvious that the driver could not control his car.
⑵if不能用在主语从句中,而是用whether。例如：Whether he left (or not) is unknown.
⑶当主语从句作主语时,谓语动词需根据从句而定,一般用第三人称单数。
What we need is more time and money./What we need are many more books.
2、表语从句：表语从句出现在系动词后,充当表语。例如：
The trouble is that we are short of money./Go and get your coat. It’s where you left it.
⑴引导表语从句除了上述三类词外还有because, as if/ as though等,例如：The reason (why/for which…..) is that …、 It/This/That is because…。
⑵连系动词“appear, look, seem”的两个常用句型：It seems/appears that…/It looks/seems as if/as though……(与事实相符用陈述语气,与事实相反用虚拟语气)
注：将seem, appear等后的从句的否定转移到前面。例如：It doesn't appear that we'll have a sunny day tomorrow.
⑶as也可以引导表语从句,例如：Things are not always as they seem to be
3、宾语从句：及物动词,形容词和介词后加宾语从句作其宾语。
⑴宾语从句时态与主句相呼应,但宾语从句表示的是客观真理或普遍现象除外,例如：
The teacher told us that the earth moves around the sun
⑵连词whether和 if可以互换,但注意下列情况：
①连词后紧跟or not时用whether：I want to know whether or not they will come.
②作介词宾语是用whether引导宾语从句：He was interested in whether he saw her there.
③连接词后直接加不定式,不能用if只能用whether：He doesn’t know whether to stay or not.
④如果宾语从句是否定时,一般用if引导：I care if he will not attend the meeting.
⑶当宾语从句后带宾补时,要用“主语+谓语+it +宾补+that-clause,that不可省略：I think it certain that she will do well in her exam.
④当主语是I, we ,主句用think, believe, suppose, expect, fancy,imagine等动词时,用否定转移。动词后面宾语从句的否定词转移到主句中,即主句的谓语动词用否定式,而从句的谓语动词用肯定式。例如：
I don’t think he will win the game, will he?
注：若谓语动词为hope,宾语从句中的否定词不能转移。例如：I hope you weren't ill. 我想你没有生病吧。
⑤that在宾语从句常可以省略,但由and或 but连接两个或多个宾语从句时,仅可以省略第一个连词that。例如：
He said (that) he had eaten nothing but that he wasn’t hungry.
⑥注意区别if引导的宾语从句和条件状语从句,例如：I don’t know if he will come.与If he comes, I’ll let you know.
4、同位语从句：在句中作某些名词的同位语,对前面的名词作进一步的说明。如：There is no doubt that he will come.
注：that引导的同位语从句与定语从句的区别
在同位语从句中,that不可以省略,不作成分；定语从句的关系代词that在定语从句作成分,作宾语时可以省略。例如：
We are interested in the news that some foreigners would visit our school./We are interested in the news that he told us.
注：when, where引导的同位语从句与定语从句的区别
在定语从句中,when, where前有分别表示时间、地点的先行词；而在同位语从句中无此对应关系。例如：
They have no idea at all where he has gone.(同位语从句)/Go and get your coat. It’s in the place where you left it.(定语从句)
注：疑问词-ever既可以引导名词性从句,也可以引导让步状语从句,而no matter+疑问词只能引导让步状语从句。例如：
No matter where I go, my heart is towards China./Whatever he says, I will never believe him.
6、当名词性从句缺少主语、宾语或表语时,引导词通常用what,它相当于all that, anything that或 the thing(s) that。另外,有时具有感叹意义。例如：What we can’t get seems better than what we have./Tom thought what a beautiful girl Mary was.
注：区分it 作形式主语的主语从句与强调句,强调句句型It is/was+被强调部分+that, 去掉It is/was, that,句子仍然成立。例如：
It is natural that they should have different views. 主语从句
It is only lately that he had had a family himself. 强调句
注：注意it 作形式主语的主语从句和as引导非限制性定语从句引导的不同。
It is known to all that the earth is round.=As is known to all,the earth is round.
Chapter 19. 定语从句
一、概念：
在复合句中,修饰某一名词或代词的从句,称为定语从句,也叫形容词性从句。定语从句在句中做定语,修饰一个名词或代词,被修饰的名词词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后,由关系词(关系代词或关系副词)引出。
关系代词有：who, whom, whose, that, which等。
关系副词有：when, where, why等。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、关系代词引导的定语从句
关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词,并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系代词在定语从句中作主语时,从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。
1)who, whom, that：这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词,在从句中作主语和宾语。例如：
Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他就是你想见的人吗?(who/that在从句中作主语)
He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。(whom/that在从句中作宾语)
2) whose用来指人或物,(只用作定语, 若指物,它还可以同of which互换)。例如：
They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down. 那人车坏了,大家都跑过去帮忙。
Please pass me the book whose (of which) cover is green. 请递给我那本绿皮的书。
3)which, that所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词,在从句中可作主语、宾语等。例如：
A prosperity which / that had never been seen before appears in the countryside.农村出现了前所未有的繁荣。(作宾语)
The package(which / that)you are carrying is about to come unwrapped. 你拿的包快散了。(which / that在句中作宾语)
2、关系副词引导的定语从句
关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词,在从句中作状语。
1)关系副词when, where, why的含义相当于"介词+ which"结构,因此常常和"介词+ which"结构交替使用。例如：
There are occasions when(on which)one must yield.任何人都有不得不屈服的时候。
Beijing is the place where(in which)I was born.北京是我的出生地。
Is this the reason why (for which) he refused our offer?这就是他拒绝我们帮助他的理由吗?
2)that代替关系副词,可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why和"介词+ which"引导的定语从句,在口语中that常被省略。例如：
His father died the year (that / when / in which) he was born.他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。
He is unlikely to find the place (that / where / in which) he lived forty years ago.他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。
3、判断关系代词与关系副词
方法一：用关系代词,还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语,就必须要求用关系代词；而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。
例如：This is the mountain village where I stayed last year. 这是我去年呆过的山村。
I'll never forget the days when I worked together with you.我永远不会忘记与你共事的日子。
方法二：准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分(主、谓、宾、定、状),也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。
关系词的选择：根据在从句中所做的成分,先行词在从句中作主、定、宾语时,选择关系代词(who, whom, that, which, whose)； 先行词在从句中做状语时,应选择关系副词(where 地点状语,when时间状语,why原因状语) 。
4、限制性和非限制性定语从句
1)定语从句有限制性和非限制性两种。限制性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的部分,去掉它主句意思往往不明确；非限制性定语从句是先行词的附加说明,去掉了也不会影响主句的意思,它与主句之间通常用逗号分开。例如：
This is the house which we bought last month. 这是我们上个月买的那幢房子。(限制性)
The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.这幢房子很漂亮,是我们上个月买的。(非限制性)
2)当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时,其后的定语从句通常是非限制性的。例如：
Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year. 查理•史密斯去年退休了,他曾经是我的老师。
My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden. 我去年买的的那幢房子带着个漂亮的花园。
This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 这本小说很动人,我已经读了三遍。
3)非限制性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数。例如：
He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎没抓住我的意思,这使我心烦。
Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽,这就叫做蒸发。
注：关系代词that和关系副词why不能引导非限制性定语从句。
5、介词+关系词
1)介词后面的关系词不能省略。
2)that前不能有介词。
3)某些在从句中充当时间、地点或原因状语的"介词+关系词"结构可以同关系副词when 和where 互换。例如：
This is the house in which I lived two years ago.＝This is the house where I lived two years ago.
Do you remember the day on which you joined our club?＝Do you remember the day when you joined our club?
6、as, which非限制性定语从句
由as, which 引导的非限制性定语从句,as和which可代整个主句,相当于and this或and that。As一般放在句首,which在句中。例如：As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health. /The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us.
注：as 和which在引导非限制性定语从句时,这两个关系代词都指主句所表达的整个意思,且在定语从句中都可以作主语和宾语。但不同之处主要有两点：
①as引导的定语从句可置于句首,而which不可。
7、先行词和关系词二合一
1)Whoever spits in public will be punished here.(Whoever可以用anyone who或no matter who代替)
2)The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school.(what 可以用all that代替)
8、what/whatever; that/what; who/whoever
1)what = the thing which；whatever = anything,如：What you want has been sent here. /Whatever you want makes no difference to me.
2)who= the person that；whoever= anyone who,如：Whoever breaks the law will be punished. 王子犯法,与庶民同罪。
3)that和what
当that引导定语从句时,通常用作关系代词,而引导名词性从句时,是个不充当任何成分的连接词。宾语从句和表语从句中的that常可省略。What只能引导名词性从句,用作连接代词,作从句的具体成分,且不能省略。
例如：I think(that)you will like the stamps. 我想你会喜欢这些邮票的。
What we need is more practice. 我们需要的是更多的实践。
9、关系代词that 的用法
1)不用that的情况：
①引导非限定性定语从句时。例如：The tree, that is four hundred years old, is very famous here.
②介词后不能用。例如：
We depend on the land from which we get our food. 我们依赖土地获得食物。
We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
2)只能用that作为定语从句的关系代词的情况
①在there be 句型中,只用that,不用which。
②在不定代词,如：anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等作先行词时,只用that,不用which。
③先行词有the only, the very修饰时,只用that。
④先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时,只用that。.
⑤先行词既有人,又有物时。
例如：All that is needed is a supply of oil. 所需的只是供油问题。
Finally, the thief handed everything that he had stolen to the police. 那贼最终把偷的全部东西交给了警察。
Chapter 20. 状语从句
一、概念：
状语从句修饰主句中的动词,形容词,副词等,在复合句中作状语.引导状语从句的关联词是从属连词。状语从句用陈述句语序,一般位于复合句的句首或句末.当从句在句首时,从句后常用逗号和主句相隔。状语从句根据其在句中的不同作用分别表示时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、条件、比较、让步、行为方式等。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、地点状语从句：地点状语从句通常由where, wherever 引导。例如：Wherever I am I will be thinking of you.
2、方式状语从句：方式状语从句通常由as, (just) as…so…, as if, as though引导。
1)as, (just) as…so…引导的方式状语从句通常位于主句后,但在(just) as…so…结构中位于句首,这时as从句带有比喻的含义,意思是"正如…","就像",多用于正式文体。例如：
Always do to the others as you would be done by. 你希望人家怎样待你,你就要怎样待人。
As water is to fish, so air is to man. 我们离不开空气,犹如鱼儿离不开水。
Just as we sweep our rooms, so we should sweep backward ideas from our minds.
正如打扫房屋一样,我们也要扫除我们头脑中落后的东西。
2)as if, as though
两者的意义和用法相同,引出的状语从句谓语多用虚拟语气,表示与事实相反,有时也用陈述语气,表示所说情况是事实或实现的可能性较大。汉译常作"仿佛……似的","好像……似的"。例如：
They completely ignore these facts as if (as though) they never existed. 他们完全忽略了这些事实,就仿佛它不存在似的。
He looks as if (as though) he had been hit by lighting. 他那样子就像被雷击了似的。(与事实相反,谓语用虚拟语气。)
It looks as if the weather may pick up very soon. 看来天气很快就会好起来。(实现的可能性较大,谓语用陈述语气。)
注：as if / as though也可以引导一个分词短语、不定式短语或无动词短语。例如：
He stared at me as if seeing me for first time. 他目不转睛地看着我,就像第一次看见我似的。
He cleared his throat as if to say something. 他清了清嗓子,像要说什么似的。
The waves dashed on the rocks as if in anger. 波涛冲击着岩石,好像很愤怒。
3、原因状语从句：
注：比较because, since, as和for
①because语势最强,用来说明人所不知的原因,回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知,就用as或 since。例如：
I didn't go, because I was afraid. 我不去是因为我怕。
Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey. 天气那么糟,旅行推迟了。
②由because引导的从句如果放在句末,且前面有逗号,则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因,而是多种情况加以推断,就只能用for。例如：
He is absent today, because / for he is ill. 他今天缺席,因为他病了。
He must be ill, for he is absent today. 他一定病了,所以今天缺席。
4、目的状语从句：表示目的状语的从句可以由that, so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case等词引导。例如：
You must speak louder so that /in order that you can be heard by all. 你必须大点声,别人就能听见了。
He wrote the name down for fear that(lest) he should forget it. 他写下了这个名字以免以后忘记。
Better take more clothes in case the weather is cold. 最好多穿点衣服,以防天发冷。
5、结果状语从句：结果状语从句常由so…that 或 such…that引导。so…that与such…that之间可以转换。例如：
The boy is so young that he can't go to school. /He is such a young boy that he can't go to school
6、条件状语从句：连接词主要有 if, unless, as/so long as, on condition that 等。if 引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。其中unless = if not.例如：
7、让步状语从句：
1)though, although引导的让步状语从句,后面的从句不能有but,但是 though 和yet可连用。例如：
Although it's raining, they are still working in the field. 虽然在下雨,但他们仍在地里干活。
He is very old, but he still works very hard. 虽然他很老了,但仍然努力地工作。
Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain. 伤口虽愈合,但伤疤留下了。(谚语)
2) as, though 引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前(形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前)。例如：
Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do. 虽然是个小孩,该做什么不做什么,他全知道。
3) ever if, even though 即使。例如：We'll make a trip even though the weather is bad. 即使天气不好,我们也要去远足。
4) whether…or… 不管……都。例如：Whether you believe it or not, it is true. 信不信由你,这确实是真的。
5) "no matter +疑问词" 或"疑问词+后缀ever" 。例如：
No matter what happened, he would not mind. =Whatever happened, he would not mind. 不管发生什么,他不在意。
替换：no matter what = whatever；no matter who = whoever；no matter when = whenever；no matter where = wherever；no matter which = whichever；no matter how = however。
注：no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句,引导主语从句和宾语从句时用whatever等。例如：
No matter what you say is of no use now. (×)Whatever you say is of no use now.(√)
Prisoners have to eat no matter what they're given.(×)Prisoners have to eat whatever they're given.(√)
8、比较while, when, as：
1)as, when 引导短暂性动作的动词。例如：Just as / Just when / When I stopped my car, a man came up to me.
2)当从句的动作发生于主句动作之前,只能用when 引导这个从句,不可用as 或 while。例如：
When you have finished your work, you may have a rest. 赶完活后,你可以休息一下。
3)从句表示"随时间推移"连词能用as,不用when 或while。例如：As the day went on, the weather got worse.
9、比较until和till：
此两个连词意义相同。肯定形式表示的意思是"做某事直至某时",动词必须是延续性的。否定形式表达的意思是"直至某时才做某事",动词为延续性或非延续性都可以。正确使用这两个连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定式还是否定式。
肯定句：I slept until midnight. 我一直睡到半夜时醒了。
Wait till I call you. 等着我叫你。(在肯定句中可用before代替。例如 Let's get in the wheat before the sun sets.)
否定句：I didn't manage to do it until you had explained how. 直到你教我后,我才会做。
区别：①until可用于句首,而till通常不用于句首。例如：Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened.
②until when疑问句中,until要放在句首。例如：Until when are you staying?你呆到什么时候?
注：否定句的两种句式
①Not until…在句首,主句用倒装。例如：Not until I began to work did I realize how much time I had wasted.
②It is not until… that…例如：It was not until I began to work that I realized how much time I had wasted.
10、表示"一…就…"的结构：hardly/scarcely…when/before, no sooner…than 和as soon as都可以表示"一…就…"的意思。例如：
I had hardly / scarcely got home when it began to rain.＝ I had no sooner got home than it began to rain.
＝As soon as I got home, it began to rain.
注：如果hardly, scarcely 或no sooner置于句首,句子必须用倒装结构。例如：
Hardly / Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.＝No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.
Chapter 21. 句子的种类概述
1、按使用目的,句子可分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。
1)陈述句(Declarative Sentences)：说明一个事实或陈述一种看法。例如：Light travels faster than sound./The film is rather boring.
2)疑问句(Interrogative Sentences)：提出问题。有以下四种：
①一般疑问句(General Questions)： Can you finish the work in time?你能按时完成工作吗?
②特殊疑问句(Wh-Questions)：Where do you live? 你住那儿?
③选择疑问句(Alternative Questions)：Do you want tea or coffee? 你是要茶还是要咖啡?
④反意疑问句(Tag-Questions)：He doesn't know her, does he? 他不认识她,对不对?
3)祈使句(Imperative Sentences)：提出请求,建议或发出命令。例如：Don't be nervous!别紧张！
4)感叹句(Exclamatory Sentences)：表示说话人惊奇、喜悦、愤怒等情绪。例如：What good news it is!多好的消息啊！
2、句子按其结构可以分为以下三类：
1)简单句(Simple Sentences)：只包含一个主谓结构句子叫简单句。例如：She is fond of collecting stamps. 她喜欢集邮。
2)并列句(Compound Sentences)：包含两个或两个以上主谓结构的句子叫并列句,句与句之间通常用并列连词或分号来连接。例如：The food was good, but he had little appetite. 食物很精美,但他却没什么胃口。
3)复合句(Complex Sentences)：包含一个主句和一个或几个从句的句子叫复合句,从句由从属连词引导。例如：
The film had begun when we got to the cinema. 我们到达电影院的时候,电影已经开演了。
3、基本句型：英语中千变万化的句子归根结底都是由以下五种基本句型组合、扩展、变化而来的。
基本句型 | 简写 | 例句 |
主 + 动 | SV | I work. |
主 + 动 + 表 | SVP | John is busy. |
主 + 动 + 宾 | SVO | She studies English. |
主 + 动 + 宾 + 补 | SVOC | Time would prove me right. |
主 + 动 + 间宾 + 直宾 | SVOiOd | My mother made me a new dress. |
Chapter 22. 简单句和并列句
一、概念：
1、简单句：由一个主语(或并列主语)和一个谓语(或并列谓语)所构成的句子叫简单句,其结构是主语+谓语。
2、并列句：由并列连词把两个或两个以上的互相关连而又互相独立的独句(即简单句)连在一起而构成的句子叫并列句。其结构是：简单句+并列连词+简单句
常用的连词有and,but,or not only...but also,neither...nor,either...or
二、相关知识点精讲：
(一)简单句
1、主语、谓语在人称与数上的一致性：and连接两个并列主语时为复数,谓语动词也相应地使用复数形式,但：
①如果and连接的两个名词是不可数名词且前面都没有冠词,若两个词表示一个事物或一个概念,谓语动词要用单数；如果两个词表示的是两个事物或两个概念,谓语动词则要用复数。
②如果and连接的是两个可数单数名词,前一个有冠词,后一个没有冠词,意味着一个人或事物,谓语动词要用单数。
③当and连接的两个名词前都有each,every,many a,no等单数概念的限定词修饰时(第二个名词前的修饰词有时可以省略),谓语动词要用单数。
2、陈述句与疑问句的转换。
3、选择疑问句。
4、反意疑问句：①陈述句+省略问句；②祈使句+附加疑问句；③反意疑问句的回答。
(二)并列句
并列句分为：联合并列句,转折并列句,选择并列句和因果并列句。
1、联合并列句：常由并列词and, not only…but also…..等连接。例如：Use your hand and you’ll find a way.
2、转折并列句：常由并列连词but, while, yet, whereas, nevertheless等连接。例如：
I would love to have gone to the party last night but I had to work extra hours to finish a report.
3、选择疑问句：常由并列连词or, otherwise, either…or…,等连接。例如：Either you leave this house or I’ll call the police.
4、因果并列句：由并列连词so, for, therefore等连接。例如：It was late, so we went home.
注：①在“祈使句+and/or+陈述句”结构中,当前后两部分间为承接关系时,用and;前后意思为相反关系时,用or。可将前面的祈使句转换成由if引导的条件状语从句,但必须将and 或or 去掉。例如： Hurry up, and we’ll be there in time.= If we hurry up, we’ll be there in time.
②because和so; although, though和but 不能连用。
Chapter 23. 祈使句
一、概念：
祈使句用以表达命令,要求,请求,劝告等。
二、.相关知识点精讲：
1、祈使句有两种类型,一种是以动词原形开头,在动词原形之前加do(但只限于省略第二人称主语的句子)。例如： Do be careful.
否定结构：Donnot …。
2、以let开头的祈使句的反意疑问句：
1)Let's ,包括说话者。例如：Let's have another try, shall we / shan't we? = Shall we have another try?
2) Let us,不包括说话者。例如：Let us have another try,will you / won't you? = Will you please let us have another try?
否定结构：Let's not … /Let us not …
